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Figure 7. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 7. A, dorsal view of m. biventer cervicis (m. biv. c., dark outline) and m. longus colli dorsalis pars cranialis of Aquila chrysaetos. Note the tendon intervening between anterior and posterior bellies of m. biv. c. M. complexus has been removed. B, dorsal view of m. transversospinalis capitis (m. trans. cap., dark outline) of Alligator mississippiensis. Medial and lateral portions of m. trans. cap. in Alligator are not distinguished here. C, lateral view of m. trans. cap. of Alligator mississippiensis (dark outline). D, m. complexus (dark outline) and m. rectus capitis lateralis (light outline) of Pelicanus occidentalis in lateral view. E, m. complexus of Pelicanus occidentalis, outlined in dark grey on the right. This is a dorsal view, with anterior towards the top. F, dorsal view of dissected Alligator mississippiensis, with m. epistrpheo-capitis lateralis, m. spinocapitis posticus and m. transversospinalis cervicis outlined in grey. M. transversospinalis capitis has been removed. G, m. splenius capitis of Anas platyrhynchos, from C2 to the occiput, outlined in grey, in posterior view. M. complexus and m. biventer cervicis have been removed. H, m. epistropheo-capitis medialis/m. altoïdius capitis of Caiman crocodylus, outlined in grey. M. transversospinalis capitis and m. epistropheo-capitis lateralis have been removed.

Figure 6 in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 6. Neck muscle origins and insertions in crocodilians. A, muscle attachments on C1–C9 of Caiman crocodylus. B, muscle insertions on the occiput of Caiman crocodylus. m. trans. cap., m. transversospinalis capitis; m. epi.-cap. lat., m. epstropheo-capitis lateralis; m. epi.-cap. med., m. epstropheo-capitis medialis; m. sp.cap. post., m. spinocapitis posticus; m. trans. cerv., m. transversospinalis cervicis; m. long. cerv., m. longissimus cervicis (m. articulares/m. tendinoarticulares); m. long. cap., m. longus capitis; m. long. cap. sup., m. longissimus capitis superficialis; m. long. cap. prof., m. longissimus capitis profundus; m. il. cap., m. iliocostalis capitis; m. il. cerv., m. iliocostalis cervicis.

Figure 21. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 21. A, origin scars of m. longissimus capitis superficialis (C7–D1 parapophyses) and m. longissimus capitis profundus (C6–C3 parapophyses) of Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH 5027). B, short moment arm of m. longissimus capitis superficialis for neck plus head dorsiflexion. C, paroccipital process insertions and moment arms of m. longissimus capitis superficialis on Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506). D, basioccipital insertions and moment arms of m. longissimus capitis profundus on Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506; the specimen is incomplete and the images are partly mirrored).

Figure 12. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 12. A, origins of m. rectus capitis lateralis (m. r.c.l.) and rectus capitis ventralis (m. r.c.v.) of Corvus brachyrhynchos, from C2 prosessus ventralis. B, all origins of m. r.c.v. from anterior cervicals of another specimen of Corvus brachyrhynchos, and its m. rectus capitis lateralis origin from C2. Both images are ventrolateral views. C, ventrolateral view of m. rectus capitis ventralis (with light outline) of Falco columbarius.

Figure 17. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 17. A, topological appearance of m. transversospinalis capitis on anterior vertebrae and skull of Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH 5027). The insertion is inferred as strongly tendinous, and is rendered as white. B, topological appearance of m. longissimus capitis superficialis restored on the same skeleton. The posterior origin was tendinous, and its morphology is depicted as white. C, D, topological appearance of (C) m. complexus and (D) m. iliocostalis capitis on anterior axial skeleton of Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton (AMNH 5027). A′–D′, functional inference strengths of muscles after visualization of inference space in Figure 2. A′, strength of functional inference for m. transversospinalis capitis (m. trans. cap. strong Level I′ inference of dorsiflexion). B′, weaker, Level II′ inference of lateroflexion in m. longissimus capitis superficialis. C′, D′, Level II′ strengths of functional inference for m. complexus (m. compl.) and m. iliocostalis capitis (m. il. cap.).

Figure 3 in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 3. Flow chart for extant behavioural interpolation, which enables inference of muscle-modulated behaviours in extinct animals. The certainty of behavioural inference in an extinct taxon is inversely related to the behaviour's specificity. Behaviour can be inferred by phylogenetic bracketing if similarity of muscle function is established in extant clades by kinematic and physiological considerations, and if these functions correlate with similar behaviours in the extant groups.

Figure 11. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 11. A, origins (dark shapes) and insertions (lighter outlined shapes) of mm. intertransversarii aponeuroses on posterior cervical vertebrae of Struthio camelus. Origins are from anterior faces of lateral tubercles, and insertions are onto posterior projections of the lateral tubercles. Arrows represent lines of action whereby insertions are drawn towards the origins to effect intervertebral lateroflexion. B, origins (dark) and insertions (lighter) of mm. inclusii on posterior cervical vertebrae of Struthio camelus. Origins are from anterior faces of the costal processes, and insertions are onto the lateral and dorsolateral tubercles. Arrows represent lines of action whereby insertions are drawn towards the origins. C, origins (dark-filled shapes) and insertions (light-filled shapes) of lateral portions of mm. intertransversarii in Caiman crocodylus. Arrows represent lines of action from origin to insertion, by which the muscles would lateroflex the anterior vertebra of each pair relative to the posterior one.

Figure 20. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 20. A, origin scar of m. splenius capitis from C2 of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033), in anterodorsal view. B, area of possible insertions of m. splenius capitis (medial part) on the occiput of Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506; the specimen is incomplete and the image partly mirrored), with moment arms shown for dorsiflexion and lateroflexion. C, insertions of m. longus colli dorsalis/m. transversospinalis cervicis onto posterior and dorsal surfaces of epipophyses, from C2 to C5. The most prominent insertion is a posteriorly concave scar on the C2 epipophysis. D, centres of rotation (white circles) and moment arms (lines) for insertions of m. longus colli dorsalis/m. transversospinalis cervicis, on cervical vertebrae of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033). Centres of rotation are estimated to be at positions similar to those Selbie, Thomson & Richmond (1993) determined for intervertebral flexion in cats.

Figure 19. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 19. A, origins of m. transversospinalis capitis (C2–C9), m. complexus (C2–C5) and m. splenius capitis from C2 and possibly C3, of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033). B, rugose scarring of m. transversospinalis capitis insertion on parietals of Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH 5029). C, insertion of m. transversospinalis capitis onto parietals of Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506; the specimen is incomplete and the image partly mirrored), with moment arms for lateral and dorsiflexion. D, insertions and moment arms for m. complexus (two dorsal) and m. iliocostalis capitis (ventral) on occiput of Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506; the specimen is incomplete and the image partly mirrored for clarity).

Figure 16 in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 16. Schematic diagram of major neck muscles of Tyrannosaurus rex in dorsal view. A–C represent successively deeper layers, and other conventions are as in Figure 15. M. complexus inserts dorsally on the squamosal, and m. iliocostalis capitis inserts along the ventral edge of the paroccipital process. M. longissimus capitis superficialis inserts between these on the lateral edge of the paroccipital process. In C a probable lateral part of m. spinalis capitis is signified by a '? ' .

Figure 18 in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 18. Topological appearance of (A) m. splenius capitis (medial part) and (B) m. longus colli dorsalis/ transversospinalis cervicis, on anterior vertebrae and skull of Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton (AMNH 5027). Note that the parietals are probably closer to the axial neural spine than in neutral life posture, and m. splenius capitis would be longer than shown here. C, topological appearance of m. splenius on another specimen of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033). M. complexus is also represented, and m. transversospinalis capits is depicted as though reflected back. D, E, appearance of m. longissimus capitis profundus (large anterior muscle), and cervical mm. intertransversarii (bands between transverse processes), on skeleton of Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH 5027). A′–E′, functional inference strengths of muscles after visualization of inference space in Figure 2. A′, strength of functional inference for m. splenius capitis of tyrannosaurids, for head dorsiflexion and stabilization. The large inference space is possible by morphological and physiological bracketing between homologous muscles in birds and crocodilians. B′, strength of functional inference for m. transversospinalis cervicis of tyrannosaurids, for neck dorsiflexion. Inference strengh is particularly high for this muscle. D′, Level II′ inference for ventroflexion by m. longissimus capitis profundus. E′, inferernce for lateroflexion by mm. interntransversarii, with poor, Level III′ support from physiological data; EMG has been uninformative about mm. intertrans. lateroflexion in extant archosaurs .

Figure 23. A in Functional morphology of neck musculature in the Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) as determined via a hierarchical inferential approach

Figure 23. A, topological appearance of m. rectus capitis ventralis (anterior muscles) and m. iliocostalis cervicis (posteroventrally originating muscles) on anterior axial skeleton of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033), ventral view. The moment arm for lateral flexion by m. iliocostalis cervicis is superimposed. B, m. r.c.v.: origins of m. rectus capitis ventralis from ventral spinous processes of Tyrannosaurus rex (BHI 3033) with arrow showing course of the muscle. m. il. cerv.: origin from ventral centra and insertions onto ventral fascia of cervical ribs of m. iliocostalis cervicis, with arrow showing course of the muscle. C, insertion of m. rectus capitis ventralis onto basioccipital of Daspletosaurus torosus (CMN 8506; the specimen is incomplete and the image partly mirrored), showing moment arms. Because the tyrannosaurid occiput slopes anteroventrally, the ventroflexion moment arm is somewhat longer than depicted in this view. D, strength of functional inference for head ventroflexion by m. rectus capitis ventralis in Tyrannosaurus rex. E, strength of functional inference for neck lateroflexion by m. iliocostalis cervicis of Tyrannosaurus rex.

FIGURE 5 in The furcula in Suchomimus tenerensis and Tyrannosaurus rex (Dinosauria: Theropoda: Tetanurae)

FIGURE 5—Line drawing of the mounted furcula of Tyrannosaurus rex (FMNH PR 2081) in anterior view. Dashed lines indicate missing portions. Scale bar equals 5 cm.

Fig. 10 in New Insights Into the Brain, Braincase, and Ear Region of Tyrannosaurs (Dinosauria, Theropoda), with Implications for Sensory Organization and Behavior

Fig. 10. Pneumatic sinuses in the braincase of tyrannosaurs in right rostroventrolateral view (left column) and caudal view (right column). Bone is rendered semitransparent, revealing pneumatic recesses, cranial endocast, vascular elements, and the endosseous labyrinth. A, Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH FR 5117); B, Gorgosaurus libratus (ROM 1247); and C, the Cleveland skull (CMNH 7541). Scale bars = 5 cm.

Fig. 8 in New Insights Into the Brain, Braincase, and Ear Region of Tyrannosaurs (Dinosauria, Theropoda), with Implications for Sensory Organization and Behavior

Fig. 8. Endosseous labyrinths (left sides). Left four columns are stereopairs of left lateral and dorsal views. Right two columns are rostral and caudal views, respectively. A–D, Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH FR 5029); E–H, T. rex (AMNH FR 5117); I–L, Gorgosaurus libratus (ROM 1247, composite of both sides); M–P, Cleveland skull (CMNH 7541, composite of both sides, restored parts in yellow); Q–T, Struthiomimus altus (AMNH FR 5355); and U–X, Allosaurus fragilis (UMNH VP 18050, right side reversed). All are to the same scale (Scale bar = 1 cm).

Fig. 2 in New Insights Into the Brain, Braincase, and Ear Region of Tyrannosaurs (Dinosauria, Theropoda), with Implications for Sensory Organization and Behavior

Fig. 2. Stereopairs of articulated braincase of Tyrannosaurus rex (AMNH FR 5117) derived from reconstructed CT scans and shown in the following views: A, right lateral; B, dorsal; C, caudal.

Fig. 1 in New Insights Into the Brain, Braincase, and Ear Region of Tyrannosaurs (Dinosauria, Theropoda), with Implications for Sensory Organization and Behavior

Fig. 1. Stereopairs in F, right lateral; G, left lateral; H, dorsal; I, ventral; J, caudal; and K, rostral views. Scale bars = 4 cm.

Fig. 2. D in New Insights Into the Brain, Braincase, and Ear Region of Tyrannosaurs (Dinosauria, Theropoda), with Implications for Sensory Organization and Behavior

Fig. 2. D, left lateral; E, ventral; F, rostral. Bone is rendered semitransparent, revealing pneumatic recesses, cranial endocast, vascular elements, and the endosseous labyrinth. For detailed labeling of the cranial endo- cast, bony braincase, and endosseous labyrinth, see Figs. 1, 5, and 8, respectively. Scale bars = 10 cm.

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Figure 19 in Diversity of late Maastrichtian Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from western North America

Figure 19. Diagram of the results of a quantitative reconstruction of a growth series of five Tyrannosaurus rex specimens.