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Visual X Maze
Four-choice X-shaped maze with visual cue or arm-discrimination options
visual discrimination, route choice, cue learning, and flexible arm selection.
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Visual X Maze (ViS4M)
$3,890.00 - $4,990.00
X-shaped four-arm maze with programmable LED illumination for visual discrimination learning and spatial memory assessment in mice and rats.
Key Specifications
| arm_length | 45 cm |
| arm_width | 10 cm |
| arm_height | 15 cm |
| maze_design | X-shaped |
| number_of_arms | 4 |
| floor_plates | 4 transparent and 4 semi-transparent white |
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Louise Corscadden
PhD, Neuroscience
Overview
The Visual X Maze (ViS4M) is a specialized four-arm maze apparatus designed for visual discrimination and spatial memory assessment in rodents. With its X-shaped design, it enables both color vision and contrast vision testing, serving as a translational model for studying Alzheimer's disease, aging, and visual impairment conditions.
The apparatus features independently controllable LED arrays in each arm (40 LEDs per arm) with red (~628 nm), green (~517 nm), blue (~452 nm), and white (~441 nm and 553 nm) wavelengths. Illuminance settings range from 6 lux to approximately 100 lux, allowing for graded visual stimuli presentation.
Key Features
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Dual Testing Modes | Color vision testing via LED illumination and contrast vision testing via object placement |
| Flexible Illuminance | Adjustable light intensity across 5 settings (low, medium, high, red-high, equal) |
| Quantitative Measures | Alternations, transitions, arm preferences, and time-in-zone metrics |
| Minimal Training | Uses spontaneous exploration behaviors — no pre-training required |
| Species Adaptable | Available in mouse and rat configurations with species-specific dimensions |
Training Protocol
Color Mode Task
- Insert floor plates, set LED illuminance to low
- Place rodent in center, allow 5-minute exploration
- Repeat across 5 days with increasing intensities (medium, high, red-high, equal)
Contrast Mode Task
- Insert transparent floor plates, place contrasting objects mid-arm
- Illuminate with red light, allow 5-minute exploration
- Conduct one trial before and after color mode tasks
Data Analysis Measures
- Time spent in each arm
- Number of arm entries
- Alternation rates between arms
- Transition patterns (arm-to-arm directional preferences)
Applications
- Study of visual impairments in aging and Alzheimer's disease models
- Assessment of color and contrast vision sensitivity
- Analysis of learning, memory, and working memory via spontaneous alternations
- Preclinical evaluation of pharmacological or genetic interventions targeting visual cognition
Specifications
Mouse Configuration
- Arm dimensions: 45 × 10 × 15 cm
- Floor plate gaps: 6 or 11 cm above base
- Central arena: 10 × 10 cm
Rat Configuration
- Arm dimensions: 58 × 13 × 19 cm
- Floor plate gaps: 7.2 or 14 cm above base
- Central arena: 13 × 13 cm
- Total arm span: 130 cm
Construction
- Black acrylic walls on glass/acrylic base
- Transparent ceilings with perforations
- Removable transparent and semi-transparent white floor plates
- LED strips (red, green, blue, white) with specific wavelengths
- Contrast objects: white, grey, black, transparent
- Optional shock bars for training
Strengths & Limitations
Strengths
- Minimal training required
- Flexible use for color or contrast modes
- Quantitative and reproducible
- Short test duration (5 min per trial)
Limitations
- Low exploratory drive may confound results
- Age, sex, and strain can influence performance
- Must be cleaned between trials to remove odor cues
Principal Investigator
Neil Veloso, Executive Director, Brown Technology Innovations
References
- Vit, J. P., Fuchs, D. T., Angel, A., Levy, A., Lamensdorf, I., Black, K., Koronyo, Y., & Koronyo-Hamaoui, M. (2021). Color and contrast vision in mouse models of aging and Alzheimer's disease using a novel visual-stimuli four-arm maze. Scientific Reports, 11, 1255. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-80988-0
- Vit, J., Fuchs, D., Angel, A., Levy, A., Lamensdorf, I., Black, K. L., Koronyo, Y., & Koronyo-Hamaoui, M. (2021). Visual-stimuli Four-arm Maze test to Assess Cognition and Vision in Mice. Bio-protocol, 11(22), e4234. https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.4234
How It Works
The Visual X Maze operates on the principle of visual discrimination learning, where rodents learn to associate specific visual stimuli with spatial locations or reward outcomes. The LED illumination system provides precise wavelength control, enabling researchers to present distinct visual cues that exploit rodent photoreceptor sensitivities and visual processing capabilities.
Each of the four arms contains an independent LED array with 40 individually controllable lights arranged in four rows. The wavelength-specific illumination (red ~628 nm, green ~517 nm, blue ~452 nm, white ~441-553 nm) allows for systematic investigation of color discrimination and visual attention. The modular floor plate system enables height adjustments to accommodate different species and modify task difficulty by altering visual angle and proximity to light sources.
The apparatus incorporates shock bar placement 7 cm inside each arm entrance, permitting aversive conditioning paradigms when combined with the visual stimuli. The dimmable low-voltage transformer system ensures consistent illuminance delivery across experimental sessions, with settings ranging from low-light conditions (6 lux) to bright illumination (~100 lux) for comprehensive visual threshold assessment.
Features & Benefits
40 LEDs per arm in four-row configuration
Provides uniform illumination distribution and redundancy for consistent visual stimulus presentation throughout extended experimental protocols.
Wavelength-specific LEDs (628 nm red, 517 nm green, 452 nm blue, 441-553 nm white)
Enables precise investigation of rodent color discrimination and photoreceptor-specific responses for comprehensive visual processing studies.
Adjustable illuminance from 6 lux to ~100 lux
Accommodates various lighting conditions for threshold detection, scotopic/photopic vision studies, and individual animal visual sensitivity assessment.
Modular floor plate system with dual height options
Allows protocol customization for different species and experimental paradigms while maintaining standardized maze geometry.
Individual remote control devices
Provides independent arm control for complex stimulus patterns and counterbalanced experimental designs.
Transparent ceiling covers with perforations
Maintains visual access for behavioral observation while preventing escape and ensuring adequate ventilation during extended testing sessions.
Integrated shock bar placement at 7 cm from arm entrance
Enables aversive conditioning protocols with precise spatial control for learning and memory paradigm development.
X-shaped four-arm configuration with 90-degree angles
Provides standardized spatial layout for comparative studies and established behavioral protocols in visual-spatial learning research.
arm_length
- 45 cm
arm_width
- 10 cm
arm_height
- 15 cm
maze_design
- X-shaped
number_of_arms
- 4
floor_plates
- 4 transparent and 4 semi-transparent white
ceiling_covers
- Transparent with perforations
led_configuration
- 40 small LEDs arranged in four rows per arm
light_wavelengths
- Red ~628 nm, Green ~517 nm, Blue ~452 nm, White ~441 nm and 553 nm
illuminance_settings
- Low: 6 lux, High: ~100 lux
illuminance_options
- Low, medium, high, red high, equal
shock_bar_placement
- 7 cm inside entrance of each arm
control_method
- Individual remote devices
transformer_type
- Dimmable low-voltage
Behavioral Construct
- Visual discrimination learning
- Spatial memory
- Cognitive flexibility
- Visual-spatial navigation
- Working memory
- Reference memory
- Learning acquisition
- Memory retention
Automation Level
- semi-automated
Material
- Acrylic
- Black acrylic
- glass
Color
- Black
- Transparent
- White
Power/Voltage
- Low voltage
Display Type
- LED
Research Domain
- Aging Research
- Behavioral Pharmacology
- Learning and Memory
- Neurodegeneration
- Neuroscience
- Toxicology
Species
- Mouse
- Rat
Weight
- 6.06 kg
Dimensions
- L: 65.0 mm
- W: 36.0 mm
- H: 27.0 mm
| Feature | This Product | Typical Alternative | Advantage |
|---|---|---|---|
| LED wavelength control | Four specific wavelengths (628 nm red, 517 nm green, 452 nm blue, 441-553 nm white) with 40 LEDs per arm | Basic maze systems often use ambient room lighting or simple on/off illumination without wavelength specificity | Enables precise investigation of rodent photoreceptor responses and color discrimination capabilities for comprehensive visual processing studies. |
| Illuminance range and control | Adjustable from 6 lux to ~100 lux with individual arm control | Fixed lighting conditions or limited intensity adjustment options | Accommodates various experimental conditions from scotopic to photopic vision testing and individual animal threshold assessment. |
| Floor plate modularity | Insertable plates at two height options per species (6 cm or 11 cm for mice; 7.2 cm or 14 cm for rats) | Fixed floor height in most behavioral maze systems | Allows protocol customization for different experimental paradigms and task difficulty adjustment without requiring multiple apparatus. |
| Maze configuration | X-shaped four-arm design with 90-degree angles and integrated shock bar placement | Y-maze, T-maze, or radial arm configurations with varying complexity levels | Provides standardized spatial layout for established protocols while offering sufficient complexity for sophisticated behavioral paradigms. |
| Stimulus control system | Individual remote devices for independent arm control with dimmable low-voltage transformer | Manual switching or basic timer-controlled illumination systems | Enables complex stimulus patterns and counterbalanced experimental designs essential for rigorous behavioral neuroscience research. |
| Species accommodation | Separate mouse and rat configurations with species-specific dimensions | Single-size systems or adjustable mazes with compromised optimization | Provides optimal spatial proportions and stimulus presentation for each species' behavioral characteristics and visual capabilities. |
The ViS4M distinguishes itself through wavelength-specific LED control, modular height adjustment, and species-optimized configurations. The system provides precise visual stimulus delivery with illuminance control ranging from 6 lux to ~100 lux, individual arm operation, and integrated aversive conditioning capabilities for comprehensive visual-spatial learning studies.
Learning and Memory
Assessment of visual-spatial learning acquisition and retention using controlled light stimuli to guide navigation choices in cognitive decline studies.
Neuroscience
Investigation of visual processing pathways and discrimination learning through wavelength-specific LED stimulation during behavioral testing protocols.
Behavioral Pharmacology
Evaluation of cognitive-enhancing or impairing drug effects on visual discrimination performance and spatial memory consolidation.
Aging Research
Longitudinal assessment of age-related visual-cognitive decline through standardized maze performance with adjustable illuminance levels.
Neurodegeneration
Characterization of progressive cognitive deficits in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease models using visual cue-based navigation tasks.
Toxicology
Assessment of neurotoxic effects on visual-spatial cognition through standardized behavioral testing with controlled visual stimuli presentation.
Practical Tips
Calibration
Measure actual illuminance at animal eye level using a calibrated photometer before each experimental series to account for LED aging and ensure consistent stimulus delivery.
Why: LED output can drift over time and ambient conditions may affect perceived brightness levels during behavioral testing.
Maintenance
Inspect LED arrays weekly for failed units and clean transparent surfaces with appropriate solvents to maintain uniform light distribution.
Why: Individual LED failure or surface contamination can create unintended spatial brightness gradients that influence animal behavior.
Best Practices
Acclimate animals to the maze environment with neutral illumination before introducing wavelength-specific stimuli to separate spatial from visual learning components.
Why: This approach isolates visual discrimination performance from general maze exploration anxiety and spatial novelty effects.
Troubleshooting
If animals show unexpected arm preferences, verify illuminance symmetry across all arms and check for reflective surfaces creating unintended light patterns.
Why: Subtle brightness differences or reflections can create inadvertent visual cues that confound experimental interpretation.
Data Quality
Record ambient room lighting conditions and maintain consistent experimental timing to control for circadian influences on rodent visual sensitivity.
Why: Rodent photoreceptor sensitivity varies with circadian phase and background adaptation state affecting behavioral responses.
Safety
Test shock bar output with a multimeter before each session if using aversive conditioning protocols and ensure proper electrical isolation from LED systems.
Why: Electrical safety verification prevents equipment damage and ensures consistent aversive stimulus delivery for conditioning paradigms.
Best Practices
Use counterbalanced stimulus presentations across animals and sessions to control for potential position preferences or learning carryover effects.
Why: This experimental design approach strengthens statistical analysis and reduces confounding variables in behavioral data interpretation.
Maintenance
Store floor plates and ceiling covers in dust-free conditions and inspect for scratches or damage that could affect light transmission properties.
Why: Optical clarity of maze components directly impacts stimulus presentation quality and experimental reproducibility.
Setup Guide
Unpack and Inspect Components
Remove maze arms, central arena, LED arrays, floor plates, and control components from packaging. Verify all transparent and semi-transparent floor plates are present (4 of each type).
Assemble Maze Structure
Connect the four arms to the central arena ensuring 90-degree angles between adjacent arms. Verify total arm-to-arm length reaches 100 cm (mouse) or 130 cm (rat).
Install LED Arrays
Mount the 40-LED arrays in each arm, ensuring proper alignment in four rows per arm. Connect to the dimmable low-voltage transformer system.
Configure Floor Plates
Insert floor plates at desired height (6 cm or 11 cm above base for mice; 7.2 cm or 14 cm for rats) based on experimental protocol requirements.
Position Shock Bars
Install shock delivery components 7 cm inside each arm entrance if aversive conditioning protocols will be employed.
Test Illumination System
Verify LED functionality across all wavelengths (red, green, blue, white) and intensity settings (low 6 lux, high ~100 lux) using individual remote control devices.
Calibrate Light Levels
Measure actual illuminance at animal eye level using a calibrated photometer to ensure consistent light delivery across experimental sessions.
Conduct System Validation
Run test protocol with known parameters to verify proper stimulus delivery timing and response detection capabilities before experimental use.
What’s in the Box
- Four maze arms with integrated LED arrays
- Central arena component
- Floor plate set (4 transparent, 4 semi-transparent white)
- Transparent perforated ceiling covers
- Individual remote control devices for each arm
- Dimmable low-voltage transformer system
- Shock bar components for aversive conditioning
- Assembly hardware and connection cables
- User manual with protocol examples (typical)
- Calibration documentation (typical)
Warranty
ConductScience provides a standard one-year manufacturer warranty covering defects in materials and workmanship, with technical support for setup, calibration, and protocol development assistance.
Compliance
IACUC Protocol GuidelinesCommonly used in behavioral studies subject to institutional animal care and use committee oversight for rodent research protocols.
NIH Guide for Care and Use of Laboratory AnimalsSupports behavioral testing workflows in facilities governed by federal guidelines for laboratory animal research standards.
Q
What is the spectral output accuracy of the LED arrays and how stable is illuminance over extended testing sessions?
A
The LEDs provide wavelength-specific output at red (~628 nm), green (~517 nm), blue (~452 nm), and white (~441 nm and 553 nm). The dimmable low-voltage transformer system maintains consistent illuminance delivery, though specific spectral tolerance and long-term stability specifications should be confirmed in the product datasheet.
Q
Can the system accommodate counterbalanced experimental designs with independent arm control?
A
Yes, individual remote control devices enable independent operation of each arm's LED array, allowing for complex stimulus presentations and counterbalanced protocols across multiple test sessions.
Q
What are the optimal floor plate height settings for different behavioral paradigms?
A
Floor plates can be positioned at 6 cm or 11 cm above base for mice, and 7.2 cm or 14 cm for rats. Height selection affects visual angle and stimulus proximity, with higher positions typically used for visual acuity assessment and lower positions for discrimination learning.
Q
How does the shock delivery system integrate with visual stimulus presentation for aversive conditioning?
A
Shock bars are positioned 7 cm inside each arm entrance, allowing for precise spatial association with visual cues. The timing and intensity of shock delivery relative to LED stimulation requires coordination through the control system.
Q
What data output capabilities are available for automated behavioral scoring?
A
The current system focuses on stimulus delivery control. Integration with video tracking systems or automated scoring software for movement detection and choice recording should be verified with the manufacturer.
Q
Can the illuminance levels be calibrated to specific photometric standards?
A
The system provides low (6 lux) to high (~100 lux) settings, but precise photometric calibration requires external light measurement equipment to verify actual illuminance values at animal eye level.
Q
What maintenance is required for the LED arrays and how is LED failure detected?
A
The 40-LED configuration per arm provides redundancy for consistent illumination. Regular visual inspection and photometric verification help identify LED degradation, though specific maintenance intervals depend on usage intensity.
Q
How does this system compare to traditional Y-maze or Morris water maze approaches for spatial memory assessment?
A
The ViS4M emphasizes visual discrimination learning with controlled lighting conditions, whereas Y-maze tests spontaneous alternation and Morris water maze assesses spatial navigation. The ViS4M is optimal for studies requiring precise visual stimulus control and wavelength-specific investigations.
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Frequently Bought Together
Total: $2,730.00
Use this apparatus with
The complete Visual X Maze workflow
Track behavior
No exact ConductVision support page is currently published for Visual X Maze; keep this as a roadmap gap rather than linking to a guessed URL.
Supporting page not yet builtRun protocol
Stepwise visual-cue choice setup, trial timing, exclusion rules, and reporting checkpoints.
ConductMaze Visual X Maze Protocol ->Analyze output
No exact calculator page is currently published for Visual X Maze; keep this as a roadmap gap rather than linking to a guessed URL.
Supporting page not yet builtConfiguration considerations
Common Visual X Maze setup decisions
Use these notes to scope species, cohort, tracking, and automation needs. Only verified product or support routes are linked from this section.
BuyableScaled option
Visual X Maze Species Variant
Mouse, rat, aquatic, insect, or large-animal scaling as appropriate
Use species-specific dimensions and lighting so the apparatus tests the intended construct instead of body size, visibility, or handling tolerance.
Quote
View options ->SpecialtyAutomation
Visual X Maze With Tracking
Camera, gates, sensors, cue control, or event logging as required
Best when the protocol needs reproducible timing, high-throughput scoring, or defensible endpoint extraction across cohorts.
Quote
Request automation help§ 1
Introduction
The Visual X Maze is a choice and decision assay built around visual discrimination, route choice, cue learning, and flexible arm selection. Interpretable data depend on matching the apparatus geometry, subject species, trial structure, and scoring rules to the behavioral construct under study. 1
Visual-cue choice protocols depend on stable geometry, consistent trial timing, and pre-defined scoring rules. Without those controls, correct choices can be shifted by motivation, locomotion, light level, odor, cue salience, or handling rather than the intended behavioral construct. 1
This methods section summarizes setup, endpoint definitions, common confounds, sample output, adjacent assays, and reporting details needed to evaluate Visual X Maze results alongside the product specifications. 1
§ 2
Methods
2.1 Procedure
Visual-cue choice with standardized setup, trial timing, and endpoint extraction.
Pre-test setup
- 1.Define construct — Pre-register whether the study uses Visual X Maze for choice and decision behavior, screening, cohort comparison, or apparatus validation.
- 2.Calibrate apparatus — Verify four-choice x-shaped maze with visual cue or arm-discrimination options, visibility, lighting, surface condition, cue placement, and camera field of view before animals enter the room.
- 3.Set scoring rules — Define correct choices, omissions, exclusions, latency cutoffs, and event thresholds before acquisition starts.
- 4.Control carryover — Use consistent cleaning, handling, acclimation, and inter-trial timing so odor, stress, and fatigue do not become hidden treatment variables.
Trial sequence
- 1.Start trial — Place the subject at the protocol-defined start location and begin synchronized video or event logging.
- 2.Record behavior — Capture correct choices, path order, latency, dwell time, and relevant zone or arm events throughout the trial.1
- 3.Apply endpoint rules — Score only committed entries or events that meet the pre-defined body-position and timing criteria.
- 4.End and reset — Stop at the maximum duration, completion criterion, or humane endpoint, then clean and reset the apparatus.
- 5.Export QC — Review tracking loss, outlier latency, immobility, omissions, and apparatus notes before group-level analysis.
Critical methodological constraints
- Cue salience. Document cue salience because it can shift correct choices independent of the intended construct.
- Side bias. Keep side bias stable across cohorts and sessions.
- Lighting. Audit lighting before interpreting group differences.
- Motivation. Report motivation when it changes engagement, exploration, or measurable trial completion.
- Visual acuity. Flag visual acuity during QA because it often explains apparent assay failure.2
2.2 Measurement & Analysis
Core Visual X Maze endpoints for behavioral interpretation and apparatus quality control.
Correct choices
Cue-guided accuracy
Correct choices is the primary endpoint for this page and should be paired with latency and quality-control flags.1
Choice latency
Latency and initiation
Choice latency helps distinguish task performance from motivation, freezing, fatigue, or handling effects.
Cue-arm sequence
Spatial or zone strategy
Cue-arm sequence captures how the subject solved the task, not only whether it reached the endpoint.
Omissions
Engagement control
Omissions identifies omissions, low exploration, sensor dropouts, or species-specific non-response.
Cue visibility issues
Quality-control flag
Cue visibility issues should be reviewed before exporting final group summaries.
+ Additional metrics: trial duration, zone dwell, event count, path efficiency, tracking confidence, exclusions, and session-level notes.
2.3 correct choices ratio (analysis)
A compact percentage summary for Visual X Maze output.
§ 3
Results
Aggregate publication data, sample apparatus output, and recent findings from the live PubMed feed.
3.1 Publication trends
PubMed volume and co-occurring behavioral methods for Visual X Maze studies.
3.2 Sample apparatus output
Representative Visual X Maze output for methods review and endpoint interpretation.
3.3 Recent methods context
- May 2026Source note
Visual X Maze methods refresh: endpoint definitions, QA flags, and comparator assays
ConductScience methods note prepared for citation review.
The first citation-cron pass should replace this editorial seed with current Visual X Maze methods papers filtered for apparatus, protocol, and endpoint relevance.
§ 4
Discussion
Limitations of the paradigm, methodological caveats, and current directions.
4.1 Common confounds
Variables that shift Visual X Maze results independent of anxiety state.
Cue salience
Cue salience can change apparent Visual X Maze performance without reflecting the intended behavioral construct. Control it in setup and report it in methods.
Side bias
Side bias can change apparent Visual X Maze performance without reflecting the intended behavioral construct. Control it in setup and report it in methods.
Lighting
Lighting can change apparent Visual X Maze performance without reflecting the intended behavioral construct. Control it in setup and report it in methods.
Motivation
Motivation can change apparent Visual X Maze performance without reflecting the intended behavioral construct. Control it in setup and report it in methods.
Visual acuity
Visual acuity can change apparent Visual X Maze performance without reflecting the intended behavioral construct. Control it in setup and report it in methods.
4.2 Construct validity caveats
Visual X Maze is strongest when endpoint definitions, apparatus settings, and exclusion rules are specified before testing. Treat a single summary metric as a screening signal, then confirm interpretation with latency, engagement, comparator assays, and quality-control review. 1
4.3 Special considerations
When should I choose Visual X Maze?
Choose Visual X Maze when the research question matches visual discrimination, route choice, cue learning, and flexible arm selection. and the lab can control cue salience, side bias, and trial timing.
What setup variables should be specified before testing?
Specify species, cohort size, apparatus dimensions, lighting, tracking method, automation level, cleaning workflow, endpoint definitions, and exclusion criteria before data collection begins.
What makes the data interpretable?
Interpretation is strongest when the apparatus configuration, trial timing, scoring thresholds, confound controls, and comparator assays are documented together with the primary endpoint.
4.4 Current directions
Quarterly editorial review of emerging Visual X Maze methodology. Q2 2026
Methods
Endpoint standardization
Define correct choices, latency, exclusions, and engagement flags before comparing cohorts.
Emerging
Automated scoring
Camera and event-log workflows can reduce observer burden and improve consistency when zone definitions and event thresholds are validated.
Methods
Comparator batteries
Visual X Maze should link to adjacent maze, motor, or motivation assays when interpretation depends on controls.
Emerging
Integrated method reporting
Apparatus dimensions, protocol fit, tracking compatibility, and endpoint definitions should be reported together so results are easier to reproduce.
§ 5
References
10 selected methods and validation references for Visual X Maze.
- Dudchenko PA. An overview of the tasks used to test working memory in rodents. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2004;28(7):699-709. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.09.002
- Shoji H, et al. Comprehensive behavioral test battery for mice. Curr Protoc Mouse Biol. 2012;2:153-187. Find source
- Vorhees CV, Williams MT. Assessing spatial learning and memory in rodents. ILAR J. 2014;55(2):310-332. Find source
- Lalonde R. The neurobiological basis of spontaneous alternation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2002;26(1):91-104. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(01)00041-0
- Walf AA, Frye CA. The use of the elevated plus maze as an assay of anxiety-related behavior in rodents. Nat Protoc. 2007;2(2):322-328. doi:10.1038/nprot.2007.44
- Pellow S, Chopin P, File SE, Briley M. Validation of open:closed arm entries in an elevated plus-maze as a measure of anxiety in the rat. J Neurosci Methods. 1985;14(3):149-167. doi:10.1016/0165-0270(85)90031-7
- Crawley JN, Goodwin FK. Preliminary report of a simple animal behavior model for the anxiolytic effects of benzodiazepines. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1980;13(2):167-170. doi:10.1016/0091-3057(80)90067-2
- File SE, Wardill AG. Validity of head-dipping as a measure of exploration in a modified hole-board. Psychopharmacologia. 1975;44(1):53-59. Find source
- Walsh RN, Cummins RA. The Open-Field Test: a critical review. Psychol Bull. 1976;83(3):482-504. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.83.3.482
- Brown RE, Corey SC, Moore AK. Differences in measures of exploration and fear in MHC-congenic C57BL/6J and B6-H-2K mice. Behav Genet. 1999;29(4):263-271. Find source
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