Zone Preference in the Visual Water Maze
June 26, 2025
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The phenomenon of mutarotation was discovered in 1846 while a scientist was learning about the properties of glucose, a carbohydrate.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecule on Earth. They are a vital part of people’s healthy diet and perform functions essential to life. Glucose and fructose are the main sources of energy supplied to the body.
Ribose and deoxyribose are essential entities in the structural formulation of the genetic material of the living organism. While polysaccharides are involved in building the cell wall structure of plants and bacteria.
Despite the in-depth understanding of the functions of carbohydrates and intensive studies of their properties, there are still many uncovered territories in carbohydrates studies.
One such property also includes mutarotation. Though it’s been more than 150 years since the discovery of this phenomenon, it’s still an ongoing research area in many labs.
This article covers the journey of discoveries of different aspects of mutarotation, its definition, and some examples of molecules exhibiting mutarotations.
But, before moving to the concept of mutarotation, one must understand the physical properties of carbohydrates including isomers, as the phenomenon of mutarotation is completely related to the structures of molecules.
Mutarotation is a change in the optical rotation of a solution due to a change in the equilibrium between alpha (ɑ) and beta (β) anomers, upon dissolution in the aqueous solution.The process is also known as anomerization.
The concept of mutarotation is related to the optical rotation and activity of the compounds dissolved in the solution. What are these terms? To better understand the concept of mutarotation, some of the frequently used terms are explained below.
Anomers are epimers (diastereomers differing at one carbon) that differ from each other in the configuration of C1 if they are aldoses and in the configuration of C2 if they are ketoses.
Optical rotation is the angle through which the plane of polarized light moves or rotates when a linearly polarized light travels through a layer of liquid or certain other materials.
When light is transmitted through certain media, the vibrations of the light waves occur in a single plane. This is called the polarization of light.
It’s a state of balance between two forms of a compound (alpha and beta) in a solution.
It’s the ability of a compound to rotate the plane of polarized light. It occurs in the compounds possessing chirality (asymmetry or compounds which lack mirror symmetry).
The optical activity of chiral compounds is generated when the electromagnetic radiation of polarized light interacts with the asymmetric field of electrons of these compounds.
The compounds are known to be optically active when they rotate the linearly polarized light. And it must be noted that all optically active compounds have their own specific rotation.
The phenomenon of mutarotation was discovered in 1846 by Augustin Pierre Dubrunfaut. His whole study was based on sugars. He noticed that when sugar is dissolved in water, its optical activity changes in time.
From the value of 110°, it decreases to 52°. He named this phenomenon “birotation”. Later, in 1899, Lowry gave it a more appropriate name “mutarotation”, which signifies the concept behind it.
After this, several other scientists got involved in understanding the phenomenon of mutarotation. The series of discoveries answered many questions like “how does it occur? Why does it occur? Does it occur in other mediums as well? Is this phenomenon observed in other compounds as well? Is it observed in all kinds of sugar? If no, why not?” The answer to these questions is explained as a different subtopic in this article.
Given below is a series of events that occurred after the discovery of mutarotation, for an in-depth understanding of this phenomenon.
| Scientist’s name | Year | Observations |
|---|---|---|
|
E. O. Erdmann |
1855 |
|
|
Anthon |
1859 |
|
|
Mills and Hogarth |
1879 |
|
|
Urech |
1882- 1885 |
|
|
Brown and Morris and Arrhenius |
1888 |
|
|
Charles Tarnet |
1895 |
|
|
Lowry |
1899 |
|
The discovery of mutarotation, which began with glucose, had opened a wide area of research for scientists to study this phenomenon in other crystalline sugars.
Later, it was found in lactose, galactose, arabinose, maltose, xylose, fructose, fucose, rhamnose, mannose, rhodeose, gentiobiose, melibiose, perseulose, and several rare synthetic sugars.
In conclusion, all reducing sugars undergo mutarotation in an aqueous solution and non-reducing sugars don’t possess this property.
Any sugar that has a free aldehyde or ketone group is considered as reducing sugar. They are also called hemiacetal compounds. These sugars are in equilibrium with the open-ring form of the molecule.
They contain an aldehyde group which acts as a reducing agent towards certain metal salts. For example, they reduce copper ion (Cu2+) in Benedict’s test and Fehling solution and silver ion (Ag+) in Tollen’s test.
Non-reducing sugars don’t have any free aldehyde or ketone groups. This is also the reason why they are not oxidized by a weak oxidizing agent or do not possess reducing power. Examples include sucrose and trehalose.
To understand the concept of mutarotation in non-reducing sugars, let’s take the example of sucrose. Sucrose is formed by a condensation reaction between a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule.
The condensation reaction involves the anomeric carbons of glucose and fructose that lead to the formation of an O-glycosidic bond between the two molecules. For mutarotation to occur, a compound must have a free-anomeric carbon.
But in sucrose, both the anomeric carbons are involved in the formation of glycosidic linkage, because of that, they don’t exhibit the phenomenon of mutarotation.
Non-reducing sugars don’t have any free aldehyde or ketone groups. This is also the reason why they are not oxidized by a weak oxidizing agent or do not possess reducing power. Examples include sucrose and trehalose.
Mutarotation involves the mechanism of ring-chain tautomerism. The two different cyclic hemiacetal forms of sugars establish a state of equilibrium with the linear form. It means that even if a compound is 100% pure (containing only one form when it’s dissolved in water), it undergoes the equilibrium state with its linear pattern.
For example, when a 100% alpha-glucose form is added to water, it unmasks itself into a straight chain (or linear pattern).
And, when it reforms, it can either change into an alpha form or beta form. Further, after some time, an equilibrium state is achieved between both forms show that the reaction follows the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
The alpha and beta anomers of the sugars have different specific rotations. A liquid solution of the pure alpha compound will rotate at a different angle and in the opposite direction to that of the solution of the pure beta compound.
The individual value of the optical rotation of each anomer and their ratio in the solution determines the optical ratio of a solution.
The optical rotation of the sample is weighed by taking the sum of the optical rotation of each monomer. A polarimeter is used to measure the rotation of a sample. This can also be used to calculate the ratio of two forms of a compound (anomers) present in the solution.
The first kinetic study of glucose was proposed by Bronsted and Guggenheim, where they proposed that the mutarotation of glucose may follow either acid or base catalysis. Glucose has two diastereomeric forms, alpha and beta forms. Both forms are different in physical properties.
For example, the addition of methanol causes the crystallization of D-glucose into alpha-D-Glucose, which melts at 46 °C. Whereas, the acetic acid addition forms the beta form of the sugar that melts at 150 °C. The specific rotation of the alpha-beta form is +112.2 and +18.7.
Figure: The figure shows the mutarotation of glucose anomers.[11] [Look at the reversible reaction and interconversion between different forms of glucose].
So, when a cyclic glucose molecule is added to water, it undergoes reversible epimerization to another form of glucose via the linear open-chain form. Here, the specific rotation of the solution gradually changes to +52.7°, which shows the equilibrium state.
The mixture is composed of 36% alpha-D-glucose, 64% beta-D-glucose, and 0.02% open-chain glucose. The three steps involved in the interconversion of the pyranose form of glucose to the aldehyde form are:
Figure: The schematic diagram showing the three steps of chemical reactions involved in the interconversion of glucose molecules from one form to the other.[4]
Lactose is a reducing sugar. It’s a disaccharide molecule composed of one glucose molecule and one galactose molecule linked by beta (1-4) glycosidic linkage. It is commonly known as milk sugar.
It undergoes mutarotation in an aqueous solution due to the presence of anomeric C1 of glucose residue. At equilibrium, the mixture is composed of 62.7% beta-lactose and 37.3% alpha-lactose. In solid-state lactose, mutarotation is observed after heating monohydrate crystalline samples.
Figure: The two structural forms of lactose achieved after mutarotation in an aqueous solution.[12]
The mutarotation of lactose is a first-order reaction and because of the higher solubility of lactose, the rate of mutarotation is slow. The rate of mutarotation is also affected by the presence or absence of sugar and salt in the solution.[13]
For example, if the concentration of sucrose is added above 40% of the solution, the mutarotation rapidly decreases to half the normal rate of specific rotation.[13]
Some other factors that influence the mutarotation of lactose include:[13]
Fructose is a monosaccharide that is present in both combined and free-form. Unlike glucose, fructose contains a ketone carbonyl group. The change from one form of fructose to another form occurs in the presence of acidic protons (change in pH) or thermal excitations (temperature change).
The open-chain form of fructose molecule forms two different structures, β-fructopyranose, and β-fructofuranose. Both these molecules have different optical activity due to their structural differences, one is a 6-ringed structure molecule and the other is a 5-ringed structure molecule.
Figure: A schematic presentation of the mutarotation of the fructose molecule via its linear-chain form.[13]
The two techniques used to study the phenomenon are polarimeter and dielectric spectroscopy.
Carbohydrates have been intensively studied for a long time because of several mysterious phenomena and properties. One such phenomenon is mutarotation. It is the tautomerization of sugar molecules when added to an aqueous solution.
It’s also known as anomerization and it is only observed in hemiacetal compounds due to intermolecular interaction. The sugar, added to the aqueous solution, equilibrates between its two forms via an open-chain structure.
The phenomenon is extensively studied in the liquid medium but its mechanism is still not well understood. It’s an ongoing research area where researchers are also trying to understand the mechanism of this behavior in supercooled liquid states and glass mediums.
So, the study of mutarotation and its kinetic reactions builds a solid scope for young researchers interested in the field.
In behavioral neuroscience, the Open Field Test (OFT) remains one of the most widely used assays to evaluate rodent models of affect, cognition, and motivation. It provides a non-invasive framework for examining how animals respond to novelty, stress, and pharmacological or environmental manipulations. Among the test’s core metrics, the percentage of time spent in the center zone offers a uniquely normalized and sensitive measure of an animal’s emotional reactivity and willingness to engage with a potentially risky environment.
This metric is calculated as the proportion of time spent in the central area of the arena—typically the inner 25%—relative to the entire session duration. By normalizing this value, researchers gain a behaviorally informative variable that is resilient to fluctuations in session length or overall movement levels. This makes it especially valuable in comparative analyses, longitudinal monitoring, and cross-model validation.
Unlike raw center duration, which can be affected by trial design inconsistencies, the percentage-based measure enables clearer comparisons across animals, treatments, and conditions. It plays a key role in identifying trait anxiety, avoidance behavior, risk-taking tendencies, and environmental adaptation, making it indispensable in both basic and translational research contexts.
Whereas simple center duration provides absolute time, the percentage-based metric introduces greater interpretability and reproducibility, especially when comparing different animal models, treatment conditions, or experimental setups. It is particularly effective for quantifying avoidance behaviors, risk assessment strategies, and trait anxiety profiles in both acute and longitudinal designs.
This metric reflects the relative amount of time an animal chooses to spend in the open, exposed portion of the arena—typically defined as the inner 25% of a square or circular enclosure. Because rodents innately prefer the periphery (thigmotaxis), time in the center is inversely associated with anxiety-like behavior. As such, this percentage is considered a sensitive, normalized index of:
Critically, because this metric is normalized by session duration, it accommodates variability in activity levels or testing conditions. This makes it especially suitable for comparing across individuals, treatment groups, or timepoints in longitudinal studies.
A high percentage of center time indicates reduced anxiety, increased novelty-seeking, or pharmacological modulation (e.g., anxiolysis). Conversely, a low percentage suggests emotional inhibition, behavioral avoidance, or contextual hypervigilance. reduced anxiety, increased novelty-seeking, or pharmacological modulation (e.g., anxiolysis). Conversely, a low percentage suggests emotional inhibition, behavioral avoidance, or contextual hypervigilance.
The percentage of center time is one of the most direct, unconditioned readouts of anxiety-like behavior in rodents. It is frequently reduced in models of PTSD, chronic stress, or early-life adversity, where animals exhibit persistent avoidance of the center due to heightened emotional reactivity. This metric can also distinguish between acute anxiety responses and enduring trait anxiety, especially in longitudinal or developmental studies. Its normalized nature makes it ideal for comparing across cohorts with variable locomotor profiles, helping researchers detect true affective changes rather than activity-based confounds.
Rodents that spend more time in the center zone typically exhibit broader and more flexible exploration strategies. This behavior reflects not only reduced anxiety but also cognitive engagement and environmental curiosity. High center percentage is associated with robust spatial learning, attentional scanning, and memory encoding functions, supported by coordinated activation in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and basal forebrain. In contrast, reduced center engagement may signal spatial rigidity, attentional narrowing, or cognitive withdrawal, particularly in models of neurodegeneration or aging.
The open field test remains one of the most widely accepted platforms for testing anxiolytic and psychotropic drugs. The percentage of center time reliably increases following administration of anxiolytic agents such as benzodiazepines, SSRIs, and GABA-A receptor agonists. This metric serves as a sensitive and reproducible endpoint in preclinical dose-finding studies, mechanistic pharmacology, and compound screening pipelines. It also aids in differentiating true anxiolytic effects from sedation or motor suppression by integrating with other behavioral parameters like distance traveled and entry count (Prut & Belzung, 2003).
Sex-based differences in emotional regulation often manifest in open field behavior, with female rodents generally exhibiting higher variability in center zone metrics due to hormonal cycling. For example, estrogen has been shown to facilitate exploratory behavior and increase center occupancy, while progesterone and stress-induced corticosterone often reduce it. Studies involving gonadectomy, hormone replacement, or sex-specific genetic knockouts use this metric to quantify the impact of endocrine factors on anxiety and exploratory behavior. As such, it remains a vital tool for dissecting sex-dependent neurobehavioral dynamics.
The percentage of center time is one of the most direct, unconditioned readouts of anxiety-like behavior in rodents. It is frequently reduced in models of PTSD, chronic stress, or early-life adversity. Because it is normalized, this metric is especially helpful for distinguishing between genuine avoidance and low general activity.
Environmental Control: Uniformity in environmental conditions is essential. Lighting should be evenly diffused to avoid shadow bias, and noise should be minimized to prevent stress-induced variability. The arena must be cleaned between trials using odor-neutral solutions to eliminate scent trails or pheromone cues that may affect zone preference. Any variation in these conditions can introduce systematic bias in center zone behavior. Use consistent definitions of the center zone (commonly 25% of total area) to allow valid comparisons. Software-based segmentation enhances spatial precision.
Evaluating how center time evolves across the duration of a session—divided into early, middle, and late thirds—provides insight into behavioral transitions and adaptive responses. Animals may begin by avoiding the center, only to gradually increase center time as they habituate to the environment. Conversely, persistently low center time across the session can signal prolonged anxiety, fear generalization, or a trait-like avoidance phenotype.
To validate the significance of center time percentage, it should be examined alongside results from other anxiety-related tests such as the Elevated Plus Maze, Light-Dark Box, or Novelty Suppressed Feeding. Concordance across paradigms supports the reliability of center time as a trait marker, while discordance may indicate task-specific reactivity or behavioral dissociation.
When paired with high-resolution scoring of behavioral events such as rearing, grooming, defecation, or immobility, center time offers a richer view of the animal’s internal state. For example, an animal that spends substantial time in the center while grooming may be coping with mild stress, while another that remains immobile in the periphery may be experiencing more severe anxiety. Microstructure analysis aids in decoding the complexity behind spatial behavior.
Animals naturally vary in their exploratory style. By analyzing percentage of center time across subjects, researchers can identify behavioral subgroups—such as consistently bold individuals who frequently explore the center versus cautious animals that remain along the periphery. These classifications can be used to examine predictors of drug response, resilience to stress, or vulnerability to neuropsychiatric disorders.
In studies with large cohorts or multiple behavioral variables, machine learning techniques such as hierarchical clustering or principal component analysis can incorporate center time percentage to discover novel phenotypic groupings. These data-driven approaches help uncover latent dimensions of behavior that may not be visible through univariate analyses alone.
Total locomotion helps contextualize center time. Low percentage values in animals with minimal movement may reflect sedation or fatigue, while similar values in high-mobility subjects suggest deliberate avoidance. This metric helps distinguish emotional versus motor causes of low center engagement.
This measure indicates how often the animal initiates exploration of the center zone. When combined with percentage of time, it differentiates between frequent but brief visits (indicative of anxiety or impulsivity) versus fewer but sustained center engagements (suggesting comfort and behavioral confidence).
The delay before the first center entry reflects initial threat appraisal. Longer latencies may be associated with heightened fear or low motivation, while shorter latencies are typically linked to exploratory drive or low anxiety.
Time spent hugging the walls offers a spatial counterbalance to center metrics. High thigmotaxis and low center time jointly support an interpretation of strong avoidance behavior. This inverse relationship helps triangulate affective and motivational states.
By expressing center zone activity as a proportion of total trial time, researchers gain a metric that is resistant to session variability and more readily comparable across time, treatment, and model conditions. This normalized measure enhances reproducibility and statistical power, particularly in multi-cohort or cross-laboratory designs.
For experimental designs aimed at assessing anxiety, exploratory strategy, or affective state, the percentage of time spent in the center offers one of the most robust and interpretable measures available in the Open Field Test.
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