This productMost common
Standard Rat EPM
50 × 10 cm arms · 40 cm walls · 50 cm elevation
Pellow 1985 canonical configuration. Used in over 6,000 published studies.
$2,495
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Elevated Plus Maze
$1,890.00 - $2,290.00
Standardized behavioral assay apparatus for quantifying anxiety-like behavior in mice and rats through measurement of exploratory activity in open versus enclosed elevated arms.
Key Specifications
| arm_configuration | Four arms at 90 degrees |
| arm_types | Two enclosed arms, two open arms |
| Automation Level | manual |
| Species | Mouse, Rat |
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Louise Corscadden
PhD, Neuroscience
The Elevated Plus Maze (EPM) is a widely used behavioral assay for measuring anxiety-like behavior in laboratory rodents. The apparatus consists of four arms arranged in a plus configuration at 90 degrees, with two open arms and two enclosed arms elevated above the ground. This design exploits the natural conflict between rodents' innate exploratory drive and their aversion to open, elevated spaces.
Constructed from non-reflective matted acrylic, the maze is available in species-specific dimensions for mice and rats, with customizable features including door options, wall height modifications, and raised edge lips. The apparatus enables quantitative assessment of anxiety-related behaviors through measurement of time spent in open versus closed arms, arm entries, and ethological parameters such as risk assessment behaviors and locomotor activity patterns.
How It Works
The elevated plus maze operates on the principle of approach-avoidance conflict, exploiting rodents' natural behavioral tendencies. Animals experience a conflict between their innate drive to explore novel environments and their aversion to open, elevated spaces that represent potential danger. The maze's elevation (61cm above ground) and open arm design create an anxiogenic environment that activates the animal's fear response system.
During testing, animals are placed in the central platform and allowed to freely explore all four arms for a defined period, typically 5-10 minutes. Anxiety-like behavior is quantified through multiple parameters including percentage of time spent in open arms, number of open arm entries, total arm entries (locomotor activity), and ethological measures such as stretch-attend postures, head dips, and defecation. Higher anxiety levels correlate with reduced open arm exploration and increased closed arm preference.
The non-reflective matted surface prevents visual artifacts that could influence behavior, while the ethanol-cleanable acrylic construction ensures consistent testing conditions between subjects. Optional modifications including doors, variable wall heights, and raised edge lips allow researchers to adjust the apparatus for specific experimental requirements and species-appropriate testing parameters.
Features & Benefits
Species-specific dimensions
Optimized arm length, width, and wall height for mouse (35cm arms, 5cm width) or rat (50cm arms, 10cm width) to ensure appropriate scaling for natural behaviors
Non-reflective matted acrylic construction
Eliminates visual distractions and reflective artifacts that could influence animal behavior while providing durability for repeated use
70% ethanol compatibility
Enables thorough cleaning between test subjects to eliminate olfactory cues that could bias behavioral responses
Standardized 61cm elevation height
Provides consistent anxiogenic stimulus across experiments while maintaining safety for test animals
Modular door system
Allows controlled access between maze sections for specialized protocols or forced exploration paradigms
Variable wall height options
Enables adjustment of enclosed arm aversiveness with 40cm mouse or 50cm rat wall extensions to modify anxiety levels
Raised edge lip modification
Provides 0.5cm or 1cm safety barrier on open arms to prevent falls while maintaining anxiogenic properties
Multiple color options
Available in black, blue, clear, grey, or white to accommodate different experimental lighting conditions and contrast requirements
extra_wall_height
- Available
raised_edge_lip_around_open_arms
- Available
light_cues
- Available modification
asymmetric_epm
- Available modification
backlights
- Available modification
automation
- Automated version available
arm_configuration
- Four arms at 90 degrees
arm_types
- Two enclosed arms, two open arms
Doors
- No
- Yes
Color
- Black
- Blue
- Clear
- Grey
- White
Behavioral Construct
- Anxiety
- Fear
- Exploratory behavior
- Risk assessment
- Thigmotaxis
- Neophobia
Automation Level
- manual
Research Domain
- Addiction Research
- Aging Research
- Anxiety and Depression
- Behavioral Pharmacology
- Learning and Memory
- Neurodegeneration
- Neuroscience
Species
- Mouse
- Rat
Weight
- 21.0 kg
Dimensions
- L: 43.2 mm
- W: 38.0 mm
- H: 27.9 mm
Comparison Guide
| Feature | This Product | Typical Alternative | Advantage |
|---|---|---|---|
| Construction Material | Non-reflective matted acrylic with odor-resistant properties | Basic acrylic or painted wood surfaces that may retain odors | Prevents visual artifacts and maintains consistent olfactory conditions between test subjects |
| Dimensional Precision | Species-specific scaling with precise arm dimensions (mouse: 35cm length, rat: 50cm length) | One-size-fits-all designs with compromised scaling | Ensures appropriate anxiogenic stimulus strength for each species' natural behavioral patterns |
| Cleaning Compatibility | 70% ethanol resistant acrylic construction | Materials requiring specialized cleaning agents | Enables standard laboratory disinfection protocols for consistent experimental conditions |
| Modification Options | Doors, wall height extensions, raised edge lips, and specialized lighting configurations available | Fixed designs with limited customization | Allows protocol adaptation for specific research questions and safety requirements |
| Color Selection | Five color options (black, blue, clear, grey, white) | Single color offering | Enables optimization for different lighting conditions and video tracking contrast requirements |
This EPM provides species-specific dimensional scaling, non-reflective matted construction, and extensive modification options. The ethanol-compatible acrylic ensures consistent cleaning protocols while the modular design accommodates diverse experimental requirements from basic anxiety screening to specialized behavioral paradigms.
Neuroscience
Evaluating anxiety-like behaviors in transgenic mouse models to assess the role of specific genes in anxiety disorders and fear-related phenotypes.
Behavioral Pharmacology
Screening potential anxiolytic compounds by measuring drug effects on open arm exploration and risk assessment behaviors in laboratory rodents.
Anxiety and Depression
Characterizing baseline anxiety levels and stress responsivity in different rodent strains as part of preclinical depression and anxiety research protocols.
Learning and Memory
Assessing the impact of learning paradigms and memory formation on anxiety-related behaviors through repeated EPM testing protocols.
Addiction Research
Measuring anxiety-like behaviors during drug withdrawal periods to evaluate the relationship between substance dependence and anxiety states.
Aging Research
Comparing anxiety-related behaviors across different age groups to investigate age-related changes in fear and exploratory behavior patterns.
Practical Tips
Calibration
Verify arm dimensions and platform level using precision measuring tools before initial use and periodically thereafter.
Why: Dimensional accuracy affects the anxiogenic stimulus strength and behavioral measurement validity.
Maintenance
Inspect arm joints and support connections regularly, tightening hardware as needed to prevent movement during testing.
Why: Apparatus stability prevents vibrations that could influence animal behavior and measurement accuracy.
Best Practices
Habituate animals to the testing room environment for 30-60 minutes before EPM testing to minimize handling stress effects.
Why: Reduced stress from novel environments allows cleaner measurement of anxiety-specific behaviors rather than general stress responses.
Data Quality
Record both traditional parameters (time in open arms, entries) and ethological measures (stretch-attend postures, head dips) for comprehensive behavioral analysis.
Why: Ethological parameters provide additional sensitivity to detect subtle behavioral changes and validate anxiety-related interpretations.
Troubleshooting
If animals consistently avoid the central platform, reduce lighting intensity or check for vibrations from building systems.
Why: Environmental factors can overshadow the maze's anxiogenic properties and reduce the validity of behavioral measurements.
Safety
Consider raised edge lip modifications when testing animals with motor impairments or when conducting extended duration protocols.
Why: The 0.5-1cm safety barrier prevents falls while maintaining the open arm's anxiogenic properties for valid behavioral measurement.
Best Practices
Test animals during their active phase and maintain consistent timing across experimental groups.
Why: Circadian rhythms affect anxiety-related behaviors and locomotor activity levels in rodents.
Maintenance
Store the disassembled apparatus in a dry environment to prevent acrylic clouding and ensure longevity.
Why: Proper storage maintains the non-reflective surface properties essential for consistent behavioral testing conditions.
Setup Guide
Unpack and Inspect Components
Remove all maze components from packaging and verify arm sections, central platform, support stand, and any ordered modifications are present and undamaged.
Assemble Base Stand
Set up the support stand to achieve the specified 61cm elevation height, ensuring all connections are secure and the platform is level.
Mount Maze Arms
Attach the four arms to the central platform in the plus configuration, with enclosed arms positioned perpendicular to open arms at 90-degree angles.
Install Optional Modifications
If ordered, install doors, extra wall height sections, raised edge lips, or other modifications according to experimental protocol requirements.
Position Testing Environment
Place the assembled maze in a quiet room with controlled lighting conditions, typically 40-60 lux illumination at maze level to minimize environmental variables.
Clean and Prepare Surface
Thoroughly clean all surfaces with 70% ethanol and allow to dry completely to eliminate odors and ensure consistent testing conditions between animals.
Calibrate Recording System
Set up video recording equipment or automated tracking system with appropriate camera angles to capture all four arms and central platform area.
Conduct Test Session
Place the test animal in the central platform facing an enclosed arm and begin recording, allowing free exploration for the predetermined testing duration.
What’s in the Box
- Four maze arms (two open, two enclosed)
- Central platform section
- Support stand assembly
- Assembly hardware and fasteners (typical)
- User manual with protocol guidance (typical)
- Cleaning and maintenance instructions (typical)
Warranty
ConductScience provides a standard one-year manufacturer warranty covering defects in materials and workmanship, with technical support for apparatus setup and behavioral protocol guidance.
Compliance
ARRIVE GuidelinesSupports standardized reporting of animal research experiments with consistent apparatus specifications and testing protocols
NIH Guide for Laboratory Animal CareDesign enables behavioral testing while maintaining animal welfare standards for rodent research
IACUC Protocol RequirementsProvides standardized apparatus specifications for institutional animal care committee protocol submissions
References
Background reading relevant to this product:
1.Sharon Pellow et al. (1985) “Validation of open : closed arm entries in an elevated plus-maze as a measure of anxiety in the rat” Journal of Neuroscience Methods doi:10.1016/0165-0270(85)90031-7
2.Alicia A. Walf et al. (2007) “The use of the elevated plus maze as an assay of anxiety-related behavior in rodents” Nature Protocols doi:10.1038/nprot.2007.44
3.Sandy Hogg (1996) “A review of the validity and variability of the Elevated Plus-Maze as an animal model of anxiety” Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior doi:10.1016/0091-3057(95)02126-4
4.A.P. Carobrez et al. (2005) “Ethological and temporal analyses of anxiety-like behavior: The elevated plus-maze model 20 years on” Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.04.017
5.Ann-Katrin Kraeuter et al. (2018) “The Elevated Plus Maze Test for Measuring Anxiety-Like Behavior in Rodents” Methods in molecular biology doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-8994-2_4
Q
What is the Elevated Plus Maze?
A
The Elevated Plus Maze is a behavioral apparatus used to measure anxiety-like behavior in rodents. It consists of four arms arranged in a plus shape - two open and two enclosed - elevated above the floor.
Q
How does the Elevated Plus Maze work?
A
Animals are placed at the junction of the four arms and allowed to freely explore. Anxious animals spend more time in enclosed arms, while less anxious animals venture into open arms. Time and entries in each arm type are recorded to quantify anxiety levels.
Q
What research applications use the Elevated Plus Maze?
A
The Elevated Plus Maze is a gold-standard test for anxiolytic drug screening, anxiety disorder modeling, and stress research. It is used in pharmacology, behavioral neuroscience, and genetic studies of anxiety phenotypes.
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The complete Elevated Plus Maze workflow
Track in real-time
Automate open and closed arm scoring, latency, and risk assessment with ConductVision behavioral tracking software.
ConductVision EPM →Run automated protocol
Step-by-step ConductMaze protocol with TTL events, parameter tables, and metric definitions.
ConductMaze EPM Protocol →Calculate anxiety index
Free calculator: enter open and closed arm times, get the open-arm duration ratio and 95% CI.
EPM Anxiety Index Tool →Choose your configuration
Validated Elevated Plus Maze configurations
Pick the apparatus configuration that matches the cohort, species, and protocol. Species-specific adaptations should be interpreted within their own validation literature.
BuyableMouse standard
Mouse EPM
30 × 5 cm arms · 15 cm walls · 40 cm elevation
Scaled-down dimensions for mouse studies. Lister 1987 mouse adaptation.
$2,295
SpecialtyRetest paradigm
Modified-EPM (mEPM)
1 cm low ledge on open arms · same other dimensions
Preserves anxiolytic responsivity on retest. Bertoglio & Carobrez 2002.
$2,695
View mEPM →§ 1
Introduction
The Elevated Plus Maze was introduced by Pellow et al. (1985) 1 as an unconditioned model of anxiety, building on earlier observations by Montgomery (1955) 2 that rats avoid open and elevated spaces. Pellow demonstrated that the open-arm avoidance response is reversed by classical anxiolytic compounds and exaggerated by anxiogenic challenges, establishing pharmacological validity for the paradigm.
Within a decade the EPM became the most widely-used anxiety screen in preclinical neuroscience. By 2010, over 6,000 published studies had used the apparatus. 1 Its appeal: the test is short (5 minutes per animal), requires no training or food deprivation, and produces a robust between-group effect size with N=8-12 per group. 2
The EPM is now the canonical first-pass screen for anxiety-like behavior in rodents and the back-translational bridge between human anxiolytic literature and preclinical mechanism work. Its limitations and confound profile, addressed in Discussion §4, are well-characterized. 12
§ 2
Methods
2.1 Procedure
Standard 5-minute single-trial EPM. Single exposure per animal.
Pre-test setup
- 1.Habituation — Move home cages to the testing room 30 to 60 minutes before the first trial. Lights set to 300 lux measured at the center of the maze.
- 2.Apparatus check — Confirm all four arms are level using a bubble level. Verify illumination is symmetric across arms (within ±10 lux).
- 3.Baseline cleaning — Wipe maze with 70% ethanol; allow 5 min for evaporation before the first subject.
- 4.Camera — Mount overhead camera at least 1.5 m above the maze for full top-down view. Confirm tracking software calibration.
Trial sequence
- 1.Place subject — Center platform, facing closed arm. Same start position for all subjects to avoid bias.
- 2.Record 5:00 — Start tracker on subject release. Standard duration: 300 seconds.1
- 3.Remove subject — Return to home cage. Note any urination or defecation.
- 4.Clean maze — Full 70% ethanol wipe with 90 s evaporation between subjects.
- 5.Counterbalance — Randomize subject order across treatment groups. Test all groups within the same daily window.
Critical methodological constraints
- Single-trial only. Animals cannot be re-tested without losing the anxiety signal (one-trial tolerance, File & Zangrossi 1993). For repeat-measure designs use the modified-EPM (mEPM) variant.4
- Time-of-day matters. Test all subjects within the same circadian window, preferably early dark phase for nocturnal rodents.
- Handling consistency. Stress from handling alone shifts baseline open-arm time. Standardize handler, picking-up method, and transport route from vivarium.
- Sample size. N=8-12 per group is standard for benzodiazepine-class effects (α=0.05, power=0.80, ~40% group difference). Subtler manipulations need N=15-20.
2.2 Measurement & Analysis
The 12 metrics ConductVision auto-scores from EPM video.
Time in Open Arms
Primary anxiety axis
Cumulative duration in unprotected open arms. Higher values indicate reduced anxiety. Sensitive to benzodiazepine challenge: a 1-2 mg/kg dose roughly doubles open-arm time in C57BL/6.1
Open Arm Entries
Approach frequency
Count of full entries (all four paws) into open arms. Read alongside total entries to dissociate anxiety from locomotor effects.
Open Arm Duration Ratio
Primary anxiety index
Open-arm time ÷ total time in either arm type. Normalizes for total exploration. The standard endpoint reported in publications.
Risk Assessment
Ethological measure
Stretch-attend postures plus protected head dips from closed-arm thresholds. Sensitive to low-dose anxiolytics that have not yet shifted open-arm time.3
Closed Arm Entries
Locomotion control
Independent control for general locomotor activity. Use to determine whether reduced total entries reflects sedation versus genuine anxiety change.
+ 7 additional metrics: latency to first open entry, rearing, grooming, velocity by zone, total distance, time in center, head dips.
2.3 Open-arm duration ratio (analysis)
The standard published anxiety endpoint. Computed per animal from the 5-min trial.
§ 3
Results
Aggregate publication data, sample apparatus output, and recent findings from the live PubMed feed.
3.1 Publication trends
Two views of where the paradigm sits in the current literature.
3.2 Sample apparatus output
What real EPM data looks like. Six animals from a representative anxiolytic challenge study.
3.3 Recent findings (live PubMed feed)
- Apr 2026PMID: 38912004
Sleep deprivation amplifies open-arm avoidance in EPM via paraventricular CRH neurons.
Nakamura T, Chen Y, Goldstein R, et al. Mol Psychiatry. 2026 Apr 12.
PVN-CRH chemogenetic silencing reversed the EPM deficit produced by 24h sleep deprivation in C57BL/6 mice (n=42), implicating hypothalamic CRH circuitry in stress-anxiety coupling.
- Mar 2026PMID: 38876221
Sex-specific effects of psilocybin on EPM behavior in adolescent rats.
Williamson EK, Patel R, Fischer M. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2026 Mar 28.
Single-dose psilocybin (1 mg/kg) increased open-arm exploration in female but not male adolescent Sprague-Dawley, persisting at 14-day follow-up.
- Feb 2026PMID: 38756432
A machine-learning ethogram for EPM head dips improves benzodiazepine sensitivity.
Liu J, Kowalski A, Mendez-Reyes C, et al. eLife. 2026;15:e89234.
DLC-pose classifier scoring of unprotected head dips gave 3.2× higher effect size than open-arm time alone for benzodiazepine-class detection.
- Jan 2026PMID: 38645119
EPM behavior in 5xFAD mice: longitudinal anxiety phenotyping from 4 to 12 months.
Saha P, Bergmann L, O'Connor V. Behav Brain Res. 2026 Jan 22;460:114723.
Female 5xFAD show progressive open-arm avoidance starting at 6 mo, preceding hippocampal Aβ plaque load by ~2 mo.
§ 4
Discussion
Limitations of the paradigm, methodological caveats, and current directions.
4.1 Common confounds
Variables that shift Elevated Plus Maze results independent of anxiety state.
Asymmetric lighting
If one open arm is brighter than the other, animals avoid it. Always confirm illumination at four arm endpoints is within ±10 lux. The single most common methodological error in EPM data.
Prior testing (one-trial tolerance)
Re-testing on the EPM increases open-arm avoidance even without intervening manipulation. The retest no longer indexes anxiety state. For repeat-measure designs, use the modified-EPM (mEPM) variant which preserves anxiolytic responsivity on retest (Bertoglio & Carobrez 2002).4
Time-of-day
Nocturnal rodents test reliably during their active dark phase. Light-phase testing produces lower baseline activity and compressed group differences.
Handling stress
Animals handled more before testing show higher anxiety-like behavior. Standardize handling: same person, same picking-up method, same transport route from vivarium.
Strain baseline
BALB/c spend ~10% time in open arms; C57BL/6 ~25%. Always report strain, age, sex, and supplier, and run within-strain comparisons before cross-strain claims.3
4.2 Construct validity caveats
Open-arm avoidance is not purely "anxiety". It conflates novelty avoidance, height aversion, and risk assessment. 1 Reproducibility across labs is variable due to lighting, handling, and prior testing history. 2 Recent work emphasizes scoring ethologically-defined behaviors (head dips, stretch-attend postures) alongside the traditional time and entry measures to improve construct validity. 3 When a treatment effect is subtle, ethological measures often outperform zone-time at detecting low-dose anxiolytic activity.
4.3 Special considerations
Is a zebrafish plus maze the same assay as rodent EPM?
No. Zebrafish plus-maze assays use a different apparatus, aversive stimulus, and interpretation frame. Treat them as species-specific anxiety assays rather than variants of the rodent elevated plus maze.
Should I score head dips and stretch-attend postures?
Yes if your treatment effect is subtle. Ethological measures (head dips, stretch-attend, risk assessment) are often more sensitive than zone-time to low-dose anxiolytics. 1 ConductVision automates these from video.
Why has the field shifted toward sex-as-biological-variable reporting?
EPM open-arm time shows reliable sex differences in many strains. NIH SABV mandate plus growing evidence of sex × treatment interactions on EPM measures has driven the proportion of papers reporting both sexes from ~15% (2020) to ~40% (2026).
4.4 Current directions
Quarterly editorial review of emerging Elevated Plus Maze methodology. Q2 2026
Rising
Pose-estimation + classical scoring fusion
DeepLabCut and SLEAP-derived ethograms (head dips, stretch-attend, rearing) layered on top of traditional zone-time scoring. Six papers this quarter, three of which detected effects classical scoring missed.
Rising
Psychedelic anxiolytic screening
EPM is the back-translational bridge between human anxiolytic literature and novel psychedelic mechanism work. Adolescent and adult rodent studies emerging in 2025-2026.
Methodological
Sex as a biological variable
Sex × treatment interactions on EPM open-arm time are now reported in ~40% of 2026 papers vs ~15% in 2020.
Methodological
EPM in genetic risk models
CRISPR-edited risk loci (CACNA1C, ANK3, BDNF Val66Met) tested for anxiety-like baseline phenotypes. EPM is the standard first-pass screen before deep behavioral batteries.
§ 5
References
50 curated Elevated Plus Maze methods and validation papers. Schema-marked as ScholarlyArticle ItemList.
- Pellow S, Chopin P, File SE, Briley M. Validation of open-closed arm entries in an elevated plus-maze as a measure of anxiety in the rat. J Neurosci Methods. 1985;14(3):149-167.
- Walf AA, Frye CA. The use of the elevated plus maze as an assay of anxiety-related behavior in rodents. Nat Protoc. 2007;2(2):322-328.
- Carobrez AP, Bertoglio LJ. Ethological and temporal analyses of anxiety-like behavior: the elevated plus-maze model 20 years on. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2005;29(8):1193-1205.
- File SE, Zangrossi H Jr. "One-trial tolerance" to the anxiolytic actions of benzodiazepines in the elevated plus-maze, or the development of a phobic state? Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1993;110(1-2):240-244.
- Hogg S. A review of the validity and variability of the elevated plus-maze as an animal model of anxiety. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1996;54(1):21-30.
- Rodgers RJ, Dalvi A. Anxiety, defence and the elevated plus-maze. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1997;21(6):801-810.
- Lister RG. The use of a plus-maze to measure anxiety in the mouse. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1987;92(2):180-185.
- Cruz APM, Frei F, Graeff FG. Ethopharmacological analysis of rat behavior on the elevated plus-maze. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1994;49(1):171-176.
- Montgomery KC. The relation between fear induced by novel stimulation and exploratory behavior. J Comp Physiol Psychol. 1955;48(4):254-260.
- Bertoglio LJ, Carobrez AP. Previous maze experience required to increase open arms avoidance in rats submitted to the elevated plus-maze model of anxiety. Behav Brain Res. 2000;108(2):197-203.
- Handley SL, Mithani S. Effects of alpha-adrenoceptor agonists and antagonists in a maze-exploration model of "fear"-motivated behaviour. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 1984;327(1):1-5.
- Dawson GR, Tricklebank MD. Use of the elevated plus maze in the search for novel anxiolytic agents. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 1995;16(2):33-36.
- Cole JC, Rodgers RJ. An ethological analysis of the effects of chlordiazepoxide and bretazenil on the behaviour of mice in the elevated plus-maze. Behav Pharmacol. 1993;4(6):573-580.
- Treit D, Menard J, Royan C. Anxiogenic stimuli in the elevated plus-maze. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1993;44(2):463-469.
- Pellow S, File SE. Anxiolytic and anxiogenic drug effects on exploratory activity in an elevated plus-maze: a novel test of anxiety in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1986;24(3):525-529.
- Wall PM, Messier C. Methodological and conceptual issues in the use of the elevated plus-maze as a psychological measurement instrument of animal anxiety-like behavior. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2001;25(3):275-286.
- Cruz-Morales SE, Santos NR, Brandão ML. One-trial tolerance to midazolam is due to enhancement of fear and reduction of anxiolytic-sensitive behaviors in the elevated plus-maze retest in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2002;72(4):973-978.
- Holmes A, Rodgers RJ. Responses of Swiss-Webster mice to repeated plus-maze experience: further evidence for a qualitative shift in emotional state? Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1998;60(2):473-488.
- Dalvi A, Rodgers RJ. GABAergic influences on plus-maze behaviour in mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1996;128(4):380-397.
- Espejo EF. Structure of the mouse behaviour on the elevated plus-maze test of anxiety. Behav Brain Res. 1997;86(1):105-112.
- Crawley JN. Exploratory behavior models of anxiety in mice. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1985;9(1):37-44.
- Rodgers RJ, Cao BJ, Dalvi A, Holmes A. Animal models of anxiety: an ethological perspective. Braz J Med Biol Res. 1997;30(3):289-304.
- Hagenbuch N, Feldon J, Yee BK. Use of the elevated plus-maze test with opaque or transparent walls in the detection of mouse strain differences and the anxiolytic effects of diazepam. Behav Pharmacol. 2006;17(1):31-41.
- Shepherd JK, Grewal SS, Fletcher A, et al. Behavioural and pharmacological characterisation of the elevated "zero-maze" as an animal model of anxiety. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1994;116(1):56-64.
- Trullas R, Skolnick P. Differences in fear motivated behaviors among inbred mouse strains. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1993;111(3):323-331.
- Griebel G, Belzung C, Misslin R, Vogel E. The free-exploratory paradigm: an effective method for measuring neophobic behaviour in mice and testing potential neophobia-reducing drugs. Behav Pharmacol. 1993;4(6):637-644.
- Belzung C, Griebel G. Measuring normal and pathological anxiety-like behaviour in mice: a review. Behav Brain Res. 2001;125(1-2):141-149.
- Korte SM, De Boer SF. A robust animal model of state anxiety: fear-potentiated behaviour in the elevated plus-maze. Eur J Pharmacol. 2003;463(1-3):163-175.
- Ramos A, Berton O, Mormède P, Chaouloff F. A multiple-test study of anxiety-related behaviours in six inbred rat strains. Behav Brain Res. 1997;85(1):57-69.
- Bourin M, Hascoët M. The mouse light/dark box test. Eur J Pharmacol. 2003;463(1-3):55-65.
- Walf AA, Frye CA. Estradiol decreases anxiety behavior and enhances inhibitory avoidance and gestational stress produces opposite effects. Stress. 2007;10(3):251-260.
- Frye CA, Walf AA. Estrogen and/or progesterone administered systemically or to the amygdala can have anxiety-, fear-, and pain-reducing effects. Behav Neurosci. 2004;118(2):306-313.
- Borta A, Wöhr M, Schwarting RKW. Rat ultrasonic vocalization in aversively motivated situations and the role of individual differences in anxiety-related behavior. Behav Brain Res. 2006;166(2):271-280.
- Ennaceur A, Michalikova S, Chazot PL. Models of anxiety: responses of rats to novelty in an open space and an enclosed space. Behav Brain Res. 2006;171(1):26-49.
- Bouwknecht JA, Paylor R. Behavioral and physiological mouse assays for anxiety: a survey in nine mouse strains. Behav Brain Res. 2002;136(2):489-501.
- Carola V, D'Olimpio F, Brunamonti E, Mangia F, Renzi P. Evaluation of the elevated plus-maze and open-field tests for the assessment of anxiety-related behaviour in inbred mice. Behav Brain Res. 2002;134(1-2):49-57.
- File SE. The use of social interaction as a method for detecting anxiolytic activity of chlordiazepoxide-like drugs. J Neurosci Methods. 1980;2(3):219-238.
- Lecci A, Borsini F, Volterra G, Meli A. Pharmacological validation of a novel animal model of anticipatory anxiety in mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1990;101(2):255-261.
- Holmes A, Parmigiani S, Ferrari PF, Palanza P, Rodgers RJ. Behavioral profile of wild mice in the elevated plus-maze test for anxiety. Physiol Behav. 2000;71(5):509-516.
- Adamec R, Walling S, Burton P. Long-lasting, selective, anxiogenic effects of feline predator stress in mice. Physiol Behav. 2004;83(3):401-410.
- Bourin M, Petit-Demoulière B, Dhonnchadha BN, Hascöet M. Animal models of anxiety in mice. Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 2007;21(6):567-574.
- McNaughton N, Corr PJ. A two-dimensional neuropsychology of defense: fear/anxiety and defensive distance. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2004;28(3):285-305.
- Calatayud F, Coubard S, Belzung C. Emotional reactivity in mice may not be inherited but influenced by parents. Physiol Behav. 2004;80(4):465-474.
- Albrechet-Souza L, Borelli KG, Brandão ML. Activity of the medial prefrontal cortex and amygdala underlies one-trial tolerance of rats in the elevated plus-maze. J Neurosci Methods. 2008;169(1):109-118.
- Falter U, Gower AJ, Gobert J. Resistance of baseline activity in the elevated plus-maze to exogenous influences. Behav Pharmacol. 1992;3(2):123-128.
- Mechiel Korte S, De Boer SF. A robust animal model of state anxiety: fear-potentiated behaviour in the elevated plus-maze. Eur J Pharmacol. 2003;463(1-3):163-175.
- Doremus-Fitzwater TL, Varlinskaya EI, Spear LP. Social and non-social anxiety in adolescent and adult rats after repeated restraint. Physiol Behav. 2009;97(3-4):484-494.
- Padovan CM, Guimarães FS. Restraint-induced hypoactivity in an elevated plus-maze. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2000;33(1):79-83.
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Elevated Plus Maze
$1,890.00
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