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Active Place Avoidance
Rotating arena or place-avoidance platform with stationary shock zone
spatial avoidance learning, conflict between room and arena cues, and memory flexibility.
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Active Place Avoidance
SKU ME-APA-6003
$13,990.00
IncludesStandard care
Rotating arena system for assessing spatial navigation and avoidance learning in rodents through continuous platform rotation and room cue-defined shock zones.
Scientist guidance
Louise Corscadden, PhD
Director of Science · ConductScience
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Key Specifications
Full details →- Model fit
- Mouse, Rat
- SKU family
- CS-958422
- Sizing
- 65.0 x 36.0 x 27.0 cm
- Ordering
- Online checkout and quote request available
- Category
- Behavioral Mazes
- Build notes
- Confirm accessories, station layout, and support needs before purchase
The Active Place Avoidance apparatus is a rotating arena system designed for assessing spatial navigation and memory in rodents through an avoidance learning paradigm. The system consists of a dry arena mounted on a precision servo motor that continuously rotates while the animal navigates to avoid a stationary shock zone defined by distal room cues. This configuration eliminates the use of simple associative strategies and requires continuous spatial updating, making it particularly sensitive for detecting subtle cognitive deficits.
The rotating platform forces animals to actively navigate using allocentric spatial information from visual room cues, as the shock sector remains fixed relative to the room while the arena floor rotates beneath the animal. Available in mouse (78cm diameter) and rat (105cm diameter) configurations, the system includes integrated shock delivery hardware with scrambler circuitry and precision motor control for consistent rotation parameters. The dry-arena design makes this paradigm suitable for testing weanling rodents and eliminates confounding factors associated with water-based spatial tasks.
How It Works
The Active Place Avoidance paradigm operates on the principle of dissociating egocentric and allocentric spatial navigation strategies through continuous arena rotation. The animal is placed on a circular platform that rotates at a constant speed while a shock zone remains stationary relative to the laboratory room. This creates a conflict between local cues on the rotating platform and distal visual cues in the stationary room environment, forcing the animal to rely exclusively on allocentric spatial information for navigation.
The shock zone is defined by its position relative to distal room cues such as visual landmarks, lighting, or geometric features of the testing environment. As the platform rotates, the animal must continuously update its spatial representation and actively move to avoid entering the shock sector. The precision servo motor maintains consistent rotation speed while the shock scrambler delivers randomized electrical stimulation to prevent habituation to specific shock patterns. This paradigm requires intact hippocampal function and is particularly sensitive to disruptions in spatial working memory and cognitive flexibility.
The dry-arena design eliminates thermal and stress factors associated with water maze protocols while maintaining high sensitivity to spatial cognitive deficits. The system's ability to eliminate simple associative learning strategies makes it ideal for detecting subtle impairments in spatial processing that might not be apparent in other behavioral paradigms.
Features & Benefits
Rotating arena with precision servo motor
Eliminates simple associative learning strategies by requiring continuous spatial updating based on room cues rather than local platform features
Dual size configurations for mouse (78cm) and rat (105cm)
Provides species-appropriate arena dimensions for optimal spatial navigation testing across different rodent models
Dry-arena design
Enables testing of weanling rodents and eliminates stress factors associated with water-based spatial tasks while maintaining high sensitivity
Shock scrambler with randomized stimulation
Prevents habituation to specific electrical patterns and ensures consistent avoidance motivation throughout testing sessions
Room cue-defined shock zone
Creates spatial learning paradigm based on allocentric navigation that is sensitive to hippocampal dysfunction and spatial memory deficits
Integrated electronic control system
Provides precise control over rotation parameters, shock delivery timing, and zone definitions for reproducible experimental protocols
Stainless steel grid floor construction
Ensures uniform shock delivery across the arena surface and provides durable, easy-to-clean testing environment for repeated use
Arena Type
- rotating arena
Arena Condition
- dry-arena
Navigation Cues
- distal room cues
Shock Zone
- shock sector defined by distal room cues
Suitable for
- weanling rodents
Eliminates
- simple associations
Behavioral Construct
- spatial navigation
- avoidance learning
- spatial memory
- allocentric navigation
- cognitive flexibility
- place learning
- spatial working memory
Automation Level
- semi-automated
Research Domain
- Behavioral Pharmacology
- Developmental Biology
- Learning and Memory
- Neurodegeneration
- Neuroscience
- Toxicology
Compatible Tracking Software
- ConductVision
Weight
- 6.06 kg
Dimensions
- L: 65.0 mm
- W: 36.0 mm
- H: 27.0 mm
| Feature | This Product | Typical Alternative | Advantage |
|---|---|---|---|
| Arena Design | Rotating dry arena with precision servo motor control | Static platforms or water-based systems | Eliminates simple associative strategies while avoiding thermal stress factors that can confound spatial learning assessment |
| Species Configurations | Dual size options with 78cm (mouse) and 105cm (rat) arena diameters | Single size fits all or limited size options | Species-appropriate dimensions optimize spatial navigation testing for different rodent models and age groups |
| Shock Delivery System | Integrated scrambler with stainless steel grid floor | Basic shock systems with fixed patterns | Randomized stimulation patterns prevent habituation and ensure consistent avoidance motivation throughout testing sessions |
| Spatial Reference System | Room cue-defined shock zones that remain stationary during arena rotation | Platform-based cues that may allow simple associative learning | Forces reliance on allocentric spatial information and hippocampal-dependent navigation strategies |
| Age Range Compatibility | Dry-arena design suitable for weanling rodents | Water-based systems with age limitations | Enables spatial cognitive assessment across developmental stages without physical limitations or thermal stress |
This Active Place Avoidance system provides species-specific arena configurations with precision motor control and integrated shock delivery for sensitive spatial cognitive assessment. The rotating dry-arena design offers unique advantages for detecting hippocampal dysfunction while accommodating both adult and juvenile rodents in standardized testing protocols.
| Model | SKU | Listed price | Status | Dimensions |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mouse | ME-APA-6003 | $13,990.00 | Available | 86.36 x 86.36 x 30.48 cm |
| Rat | ME-APA-6004 | $14,990.00 | Available | 65.0 x 36.0 x 27.0 cm |
Neuroscience
Evaluating hippocampal-dependent spatial memory function following experimental brain lesions or pharmacological interventions targeting cognitive pathways.
Behavioral Pharmacology
Assessing the effects of psychoactive compounds on spatial learning and memory processes through avoidance paradigms that require continuous spatial updating.
Learning and Memory
Investigating place learning and cognitive flexibility in paradigms that dissociate spatial memory from simple stimulus-response associations.
Neurodegeneration
Detecting early spatial cognitive deficits in animal models of Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative conditions through sensitive avoidance learning protocols.
Developmental Biology
Examining spatial cognitive development in juvenile rodents using dry-arena protocols suitable for weanling animals.
Toxicology
Evaluating neurotoxic effects of chemical exposures on spatial navigation and learning through standardized avoidance paradigms.
Practical Tips
Calibration
Verify rotation speed accuracy using a stopwatch and visual markers before each testing session to ensure consistent spatial updating requirements.
Why: Consistent rotation parameters are critical for reproducible spatial cognitive assessment across experimental sessions
Maintenance
Clean the stainless steel grid floor with mild detergent between subjects and inspect electrical connections regularly for corrosion or damage.
Why: Clean grid surfaces ensure uniform shock delivery while proper electrical maintenance prevents equipment failure during testing
Best Practices
Allow animals to acclimate to the rotating platform without shock for 2-3 minutes before beginning avoidance training.
Why: Platform familiarization reduces initial stress responses and allows assessment of spatial learning rather than adaptation to rotation
Best Practices
Use distinct, high-contrast room cues positioned at multiple locations around the testing environment for optimal spatial reference.
Why: Multiple stable visual landmarks provide robust allocentric navigation cues and improve spatial learning reliability
Data Quality
Record both entrance frequency and time spent in the shock zone to capture different aspects of avoidance learning and spatial memory.
Why: Multiple behavioral measures provide comprehensive assessment of spatial cognitive function and learning progression
Troubleshooting
If animals show poor avoidance learning, verify shock intensity is appropriate and check that room cues are clearly visible from the arena.
Why: Inadequate shock parameters or poor visual cues can prevent effective spatial learning and lead to inconclusive results
Safety
Test shock delivery on a multimeter before animal use and never exceed institutional guidelines for electrical stimulation parameters.
Why: Proper shock calibration ensures animal welfare compliance while maintaining effective avoidance learning paradigms
Setup Guide
Arena Assembly
Mount the acrylic arena on the stainless steel grid base and secure the assembly to the metal stand. Ensure the arena is level and the rotation mechanism moves freely without obstruction.
Motor Connection
Connect the precision servo motor to the electronic control box using the provided cabling. Verify motor rotation direction and speed control functionality through the control interface.
Shock System Setup
Connect the shock scrambler to the grid floor using shock cables and test stimulation delivery. Set initial shock parameters according to species and experimental protocol requirements.
Room Cue Arrangement
Position distinct visual landmarks around the testing room to provide stable distal cues for spatial orientation. Ensure room lighting is consistent and cues are clearly visible from the arena.
Rotation Calibration
Set the arena rotation speed according to experimental protocol (typically 1-2 RPM) and verify consistent rotation throughout testing sessions. Document rotation parameters for reproducibility.
Shock Zone Definition
Define the shock sector boundaries relative to room cues using the control software or hardware settings. Test shock delivery within the defined zone before animal testing.
System Validation
Run a complete system test including arena rotation, shock delivery timing, and tracking integration if applicable. Verify all components function correctly before beginning experiments.
What’s in the Box
- Acrylic rotating arena (species-specific diameter)
- Stainless steel grid floor base
- Metal stand (35cm height)
- Precision servo motor
- Electronic control box
- Shock scrambler unit
- Shock delivery cables
- Motor and control system cabling
- User manual and setup guide (typical)
- Calibration documentation (typical)
Warranty
ConductScience provides a standard one-year manufacturer warranty covering hardware defects and technical support for system setup and operation. Extended warranty options and calibration services are available for long-term research programs.
Compliance
USDA Animal Welfare ActSystems used in facilities conducting research with laboratory animals are subject to USDA oversight and institutional animal care protocols
NIH Guide for Care and Use of Laboratory AnimalsBehavioral testing equipment must be operated according to institutional guidelines for animal research and welfare monitoring
AAALAC International StandardsEquipment used in accredited research facilities must support protocols that meet international standards for laboratory animal care
References
Background reading relevant to this product:
1.José Manuel Cimadevilla et al. (2000) “Passive and active place avoidance as a tool of spatial memory research in rats” Journal of Neuroscience Methods doi:10.1016/s0165-0270(00)00288-0
2.José Manuel Cimadevilla et al. (2001) “New spatial cognition tests for mice: Passive place avoidance on stable and active place avoidance on rotating arenas” Brain Research Bulletin doi:10.1016/s0361-9230(01)00448-8
3.José Manuel Cimadevilla et al. (2000) “Functional inactivation of dorsal hippocampus impairs active place avoidance in rats” Neuroscience Letters doi:10.1016/s0304-3940(00)01019-3
4.Aleš Stuchlík et al. (2004) “Application of a novel Active Allothetic Place Avoidance task (AAPA) in testing a pharmacological model of psychosis in rats: comparison with the Morris Water Maze” Neuroscience Letters doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2004.05.037
5.Edith Lesburguères et al. (2016) “Active place avoidance is no more stressful than unreinforced exploration of a familiar environment” Hippocampus doi:10.1002/hipo.22666
Q
What rotation speeds are typically used for active place avoidance testing?
A
Rotation speeds typically range from 1-2 RPM, though optimal speeds may vary based on species, age, and experimental objectives. The precision servo motor allows fine adjustment of rotation parameters, and speed should be validated for each experimental protocol to ensure appropriate cognitive challenge without excessive stress.
Q
How is the shock zone defined and maintained during arena rotation?
A
The shock zone remains stationary relative to room cues while the arena floor rotates beneath the animal. Zone boundaries are defined by their position relative to distal visual landmarks and maintained by the control system that tracks arena position and delivers stimulation only when animals enter the designated sector.
Q
What shock parameters are recommended for different species and age groups?
A
Shock intensity should be set to the minimum level that produces reliable avoidance behavior, typically determined through preliminary testing with each animal group. Weanling animals generally require lower intensities than adults, and parameters should be validated according to institutional animal welfare protocols.
Q
Can this system be integrated with video tracking for automated behavioral analysis?
A
Yes, the system can be integrated with overhead video tracking systems for automated position monitoring and behavioral analysis. The rotating arena requires tracking software capable of accounting for platform rotation when calculating spatial coordinates and movement patterns.
Q
How does this paradigm differ from traditional water maze spatial testing?
A
Active place avoidance eliminates thermal stress and swimming requirements while providing higher sensitivity to spatial working memory deficits. The continuous rotation requirement forces active navigation and spatial updating rather than the goal-directed navigation used in water maze protocols.
Q
What room cue configurations work best for spatial orientation?
A
Effective room cues include high-contrast visual patterns, geometric shapes, or lighting configurations positioned at multiple locations around the testing room. Cues should be clearly visible from the arena and remain stable throughout testing sessions to provide reliable spatial reference points.
Q
Is the system suitable for testing cognitive flexibility and reversal learning?
A
Yes, the shock zone can be repositioned relative to room cues to assess spatial reversal learning and cognitive flexibility. This allows investigation of how animals adapt to changing spatial contingencies and provides insights into executive function and behavioral flexibility.
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Use this apparatus with
The complete Active Place Avoidance workflow
Track behavior
Automate avoidance time, latency, zone occupancy, path order, and event timing for Active Place Avoidance studies.
ConductVision Active Place Avoidance ->Run protocol
Stepwise spatial avoidance setup, trial timing, exclusion rules, and reporting checkpoints.
ConductMaze Active Place Avoidance Protocol ->Analyze output
Summarize avoidance time, group differences, and quality-control flags before export.
Active Place Avoidance Calculator ->Configuration considerations
Common Active Place Avoidance setup decisions
Use these notes to scope species, cohort, tracking, and automation needs. Only verified product or support routes are linked from this section.
BuyableScaled option
Active Place Avoidance Species Variant
Mouse, rat, aquatic, insect, or large-animal scaling as appropriate
Use species-specific dimensions and lighting so the apparatus tests the intended construct instead of body size, visibility, or handling tolerance.
Quote
View options ->SpecialtyAutomation
Active Place Avoidance With Tracking
Camera, gates, sensors, cue control, or event logging as required
Best when the protocol needs reproducible timing, high-throughput scoring, or defensible endpoint extraction across cohorts.
Quote
Configure tracking ->§ 1
Introduction
The Active Place Avoidance is a avoidance assay built around spatial avoidance learning, conflict between room and arena cues, and memory flexibility. Interpretable data depend on matching the apparatus geometry, subject species, trial structure, and scoring rules to the behavioral construct under study. 1
Spatial avoidance protocols depend on stable geometry, consistent trial timing, and pre-defined scoring rules. Without those controls, avoidance time can be shifted by motivation, locomotion, light level, odor, cue salience, or handling rather than the intended behavioral construct. 1
This methods section summarizes setup, endpoint definitions, common confounds, sample output, adjacent assays, and reporting details needed to evaluate Active Place Avoidance results alongside the product specifications. 1
§ 2
Methods
2.1 Procedure
Spatial avoidance with standardized setup, trial timing, and endpoint extraction.
Pre-test setup
- 1.Define construct: Pre-register whether the study uses Active Place Avoidance for avoidance behavior, screening, cohort comparison, or apparatus validation.
- 2.Calibrate apparatus: Verify rotating arena or place-avoidance platform with stationary shock zone, visibility, lighting, surface condition, cue placement, and camera field of view before animals enter the room.
- 3.Set scoring rules: Define avoidance time, omissions, exclusions, latency cutoffs, and event thresholds before acquisition starts.
- 4.Control carryover: Use consistent cleaning, handling, acclimation, and inter-trial timing so odor, stress, and fatigue do not become hidden treatment variables.
Trial sequence
- 1.Start trial: Place the subject at the protocol-defined start location and begin synchronized video or event logging.
- 2.Record behavior: Capture avoidance time, path order, latency, dwell time, and relevant zone or arm events throughout the trial.1
- 3.Apply endpoint rules: Score only committed entries or events that meet the pre-defined body-position and timing criteria.
- 4.End and reset: Stop at the maximum duration, completion criterion, or humane endpoint, then clean and reset the apparatus.
- 5.Export QC: Review tracking loss, outlier latency, immobility, omissions, and apparatus notes before group-level analysis.
Critical methodological constraints
- Shock sensitivity. Document shock sensitivity because it can shift avoidance time independent of the intended construct.
- Locomotor activity. Keep locomotor activity stable across cohorts and sessions.
- Cue stability. Audit cue stability before interpreting group differences.
- Arena rotation. Report arena rotation when it changes engagement, exploration, or measurable trial completion.
- Stress reactivity. Flag stress reactivity during QA because it often explains apparent assay failure.2
2.2 Measurement & Analysis
Core Active Place Avoidance endpoints for behavioral interpretation and apparatus quality control.
Avoidance time
Spatial avoidance learning
Avoidance time is the primary endpoint for this page and should be paired with latency and quality-control flags.1
First-entry latency
Latency and initiation
First-entry latency helps distinguish task performance from motivation, freezing, fatigue, or handling effects.
Shock-zone entries
Spatial or zone strategy
Shock-zone entries captures how the subject solved the task, not only whether it reached the endpoint.
Distance traveled
Engagement control
Distance traveled identifies omissions, low exploration, sensor dropouts, or species-specific non-response.
Cue-frame mismatch
Quality-control flag
Cue-frame mismatch should be reviewed before exporting final group summaries.
+ Additional metrics: trial duration, zone dwell, event count, path efficiency, tracking confidence, exclusions, and session-level notes.
2.3 avoidance time ratio (analysis)
A compact percentage summary for Active Place Avoidance output.
§ 3
Results
PubMed publication counts, sample apparatus output, and recent papers from a dated PubMed snapshot.
3.1 Publication trends
PubMed volume and co-occurring behavioral methods for Active Place Avoidance studies.
3.2 Sample apparatus output
Representative Active Place Avoidance output for methods review and endpoint interpretation.
3.3 Recent findings (PubMed)
- Jun 2026PMID: 41467983
Beneficial Effects of Intravenous Immunoglobulin Treatment in a Mouse Preclinical Model of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury.
Chen M, Puhakka N, Edson J, et al.. J Neurotrauma. 2026 Jun.
The long-term sequelae of severe penetrating traumatic brain injury (TBI) include neurological and psychiatric disability, impaired cognitive function, and the development of post-traumatic epilepsy.
- 2026PMID: 42232837
Transcriptomic signatures of hippocampal active place avoidance memory maintenance.
Vingan I, Phatarpekar S, Tung VSK, et al.. Front Cell Neurosci. 2026.
The gene expression changes associated with memory acquisition, consolidation and reconsolidation-all active epochs in memory formation-have been well characterized in the rodent hippocampus. Less is known, however, of the changes in gene expression during the offline maintenance of memory.
- May 2026PMID: 41824523
Persistently Increased Expression of PKMzeta and Unbiased Gene Expression Profiles Identify Hippocampal Molecular Traces of a Long-Term Active Place Avoidance Memory and "Shadow" Proteins.
Han J, Grau-Perales A, Harris RM, et al.. Adv Sci (Weinh). 2026 May.
Long-term memory formation transiently activates Ca2+-calmodulin kinase II and atypical protein kinase C isoform iota/lambda, whereas persistent activation of the other atypical PKC, protein kinase M zeta (PKMζ), together with its interacting partner, the scaffolding-protein KIBRA (Wwc1), are necessary for maintaining …
- Mar 2026PMID: 41823094
Task-Specific Effects of mGlu2/3 Receptor Agonist LY379268 on MK-801-Induced Behavioral and Neural Dysfunctions in Rats.
Hruza K, Cernotova D, Maleninska K, et al.. Physiol Res. 2026 Mar 13.
NMDA receptor hypofunction can lead to behavioral and cognitive disturbances, including hyperlocomotion, and is considered a core pathophysiological mechanism underlying cognitive and negative symptoms in schizophrenia.
- Sep 2025PMID: 40502027
Persistently increased expression of PKMzeta and unbiased gene expression profiles identify hippocampal molecular traces of a long-term active place avoidance memory and 'shadow' proteins.
Han J, Grau-Perales A, Harris RM, et al.. bioRxiv. 2025 Sep 14.
Long-term memory formation transiently activates Ca2+-calmodulin kinase IIα and atypical protein kinase C isoform iota/lambda, whereas persistent activation of the other atypical PKC, protein kinase M zeta (PKMζ), together with its interacting partner, the scaffolding-protein KIBRA (Wwc1), are necessary for maintaining…
- Jun 2025PMID: 40551129
Group 2 innate lymphoid cells drive inhibitory synapse formation with lasting effects on learning and memory.
Steffen J, Deshpande D, Düsedau HP, et al.. J Neuroinflammation. 2025 Jun 23.
The immune system provides multiple layers of protection that extend beyond conventional pathogen defense, including context-dependent modulation of behavior. However, the mechanisms driving these immune-mediated behavioral modifications remain incompletely understood.
§ 4
Discussion
Limitations of the paradigm, methodological caveats, and current directions.
4.1 Common confounds
Variables that can shift Active Place Avoidance results apart from the effect under study.
Shock sensitivity
Shock sensitivity can change apparent Active Place Avoidance performance without reflecting the intended behavioral construct. Control it in setup and report it in methods.
Locomotor activity
Locomotor activity can change apparent Active Place Avoidance performance without reflecting the intended behavioral construct. Control it in setup and report it in methods.
Cue stability
Cue stability can change apparent Active Place Avoidance performance without reflecting the intended behavioral construct. Control it in setup and report it in methods.
Arena rotation
Arena rotation can change apparent Active Place Avoidance performance without reflecting the intended behavioral construct. Control it in setup and report it in methods.
Stress reactivity
Stress reactivity can change apparent Active Place Avoidance performance without reflecting the intended behavioral construct. Control it in setup and report it in methods.
4.2 Construct validity caveats
Active Place Avoidance is strongest when endpoint definitions, apparatus settings, and exclusion rules are specified before testing. Treat a single summary metric as a screening signal, then confirm interpretation with latency, engagement, comparator assays, and quality-control review. 1
4.3 Special considerations
When should I choose Active Place Avoidance?
Choose Active Place Avoidance when the research question matches spatial avoidance learning, conflict between room and arena cues, and memory flexibility. and the lab can control shock sensitivity, locomotor activity, and trial timing.
What setup variables should be specified before testing?
Specify species, cohort size, apparatus dimensions, lighting, tracking method, automation level, cleaning workflow, endpoint definitions, and exclusion criteria before data collection begins.
What makes the data interpretable?
Interpretation is strongest when the apparatus configuration, trial timing, scoring thresholds, confound controls, and comparator assays are documented together with the primary endpoint.
4.4 Current directions
Quarterly editorial review of emerging Active Place Avoidance methodology. Q2 2026
Methods
Endpoint standardization
Define avoidance time, latency, exclusions, and engagement flags before comparing cohorts.
Emerging
Automated scoring
Camera and event-log workflows can reduce observer burden and improve consistency when zone definitions and event thresholds are validated.
Methods
Comparator batteries
Active Place Avoidance should link to adjacent maze, motor, or motivation assays when interpretation depends on controls.
Emerging
Integrated method reporting
Apparatus dimensions, protocol fit, tracking compatibility, and endpoint definitions should be reported together so results are easier to reproduce.
§ 5
References
10 selected methods and validation references for Active Place Avoidance.
- Dudchenko PA. An overview of the tasks used to test working memory in rodents. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2004;28(7):699-709. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.09.002
- Shoji H, et al. Comprehensive behavioral test battery for mice. Curr Protoc Mouse Biol. 2012;2:153-187. Find source
- Vorhees CV, Williams MT. Assessing spatial learning and memory in rodents. ILAR J. 2014;55(2):310-332. Find source
- Lalonde R. The neurobiological basis of spontaneous alternation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2002;26(1):91-104. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(01)00041-0
- Walf AA, Frye CA. The use of the elevated plus maze as an assay of anxiety-related behavior in rodents. Nat Protoc. 2007;2(2):322-328. doi:10.1038/nprot.2007.44
- Pellow S, Chopin P, File SE, Briley M. Validation of open:closed arm entries in an elevated plus-maze as a measure of anxiety in the rat. J Neurosci Methods. 1985;14(3):149-167. doi:10.1016/0165-0270(85)90031-7
- Crawley JN, Goodwin FK. Preliminary report of a simple animal behavior model for the anxiolytic effects of benzodiazepines. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1980;13(2):167-170. doi:10.1016/0091-3057(80)90067-2
- File SE, Wardill AG. Validity of head-dipping as a measure of exploration in a modified hole-board. Psychopharmacologia. 1975;44(1):53-59. Find source
- Walsh RN, Cummins RA. The Open-Field Test: a critical review. Psychol Bull. 1976;83(3):482-504. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.83.3.482
- Brown RE, Corey SC, Moore AK. Differences in measures of exploration and fear in MHC-congenic C57BL/6J and B6-H-2K mice. Behav Genet. 1999;29(4):263-271. Find source
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